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Efficient visible light active Polyaniline/TiO2 nanocomposite photocatalyst for degradation of Reactive Blue 4
Abstract
Visible light active photocatalysts are much sought after due to possibility of development of efficient and less
expensive photoreactors for environmental applications. We prepared a visible light active photocatalyst,
situ polymerisation method. It was characterized using polyaniline-TiO2 photocatalytic activity of the PANI-TiO2 was tested for photo degradation of Reactive Blue 4 (RB-4) using visible (100 W tungsten-halogen lamp) as well as UV lamp (125 W). The PANI/TiO2 having thin layers of PANI (~1 nm) polymerized on the surface of TiO2 The nanocomposite displayed remarkable photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation (% RB-4 removal efficiency ≥ 92; % TOC removal ≥ 50). About 15 times greater rate constant for the reaction under visible light (5.23 × 10-2 min-1) was obtained compared to the rate constant with TiO2
morphological data were discussed in the light of the reported data for PANI/TiO2 by different methods. On the basis of such comparison, a in which TiO2 PANI/TiO2 polyaniline could be inferred to have higher photo
activity over the other forms. (PANI-TiO2 nanoparticles (~30 nm) were obtained. (k = 3.5 × 10-3 min-1). The kinetic and materials produced earlier nanoparticles are deposited on polyaniline could be inferred to have higher photo activity over the other forms.
... However, after generated abundant amounts of protons and electrons by photocatalytic activity, the produced amount of CH4 and CO was reversed because the generation of CH4 is thermodynamically easier than that of CO as expressed in equation (3) and (4) [1]. In this study, the polyaniline coated onto the PBNO surface much enhanced CO2 conversion efficiency because it can behave as an electron conductor under the visible light irradiation [8]. As shown in Fig. 4, the PBNO/10%CP/GF exhibited the highest CO2 conversion efficiency and the production rates of CH4 and CO were 72.76 and 54.36 (μmol g -1 cat. ...
... The PBNO/10%CP/GF, which indicated the highest visible light absorbance and the lowest intensity of photoluminescence spectra, exhibited best selectivity, 89.33 %. The proper amount of polyaniline acts as a photosensitizer and electron conductor which allowing effective separation of electron-hole pairs and reduction of their recombination rate, thus abundant number of protons and electrons can be generated to form CH4 [6,8]. The production rate of H2 tended to decreased when the selectivity of CO2 conversion increased. ...
CO2 photoreduction is recently considered as a promising approach to produce fuel from a greenhouse gas by using sunlight. In this study, the polyaniline coated PbBi2Nb2O9 (PBNO/CP) supported on glass fiber (GF) substrate is successfully synthesized as a photocatalyst for the CO2 conversion with water vapor (H2O) to selectively produce methane (CH4) under the visible light irradiation. The polyaniline coated on the PBNO surface acts as a photosensitizer, leading to the effective separation of photoinduced electron-hole pairs under the visible light. The generated electrons and holes react with O2 and H2O molecules adsorbed on the PBNO surfaces to form the reactive species such as hydroxyl radicals (OH•) and superoxide anions (O2⁻•). Then they react with CO2 to produce CH4 and CO. Therefore, PBNO/CP/GF successfully converts CO2 to CH4 and CO with high efficiency under the visible light. The sufficient amounts of electrons and protons are generated by the PBNO/CP/GF photocatalyst that allowing the selective production of CH4 rather than CO. The synthesized photocatalyst with 10 % of polyaniline ratio (PBNO/10%CP/GF) shows the highest CO2 conversion and selectivity. The production rates of CH4 and CO are 72.76 and 54.36 μmol g⁻¹ cat. h⁻¹, respectively, and the selectivity of CO2 conversion is 89.33 %.
... E. Subramanian et al., reported the photodegradation of MB dye using PANI-TiO 2 nanocomposite (Subramanian et al., 2014). S. Masid et al. reported the degradation efficiency of PANI-TiO 2 nanocomposite for reactive blue 4 (RB-4) (Masid et al., 2015). ...
The present work encompasses a simple strategy to synthesize highly porous TiO2 by incorporating PANI polymer into the sol-gel chemistry of Titanium dioxide/Titanium (IV)-iso-propoxide (TiO2/TTIP). A series of TiO2 samples by varying wt.% of PANI, have been synthesized. A probable growth mechanism has been presented for the formation of a porous ginger-like nanostructure of TiO2-PANI (TP). HRTEM images reveal that the particle size range is 6–16 nm for pristine TiO2 and 5–13 nm for TP samples. XPS analysis confirms the presence of the hydrogen bonds in-between surface hydroxyl groups (Ti–OH) of TiO2 and the protonated nitrogen of PANI. UV–visible absorption study reveals a small shift towards longer wavelength for TP8 sample than that of pristine TiO2 (λmax = 314 nm) as well as reduction in Eg value from 3.02 eV to 2.89 eV. FTIR results confirm the successful interaction of PANI and TiO2. BJH and BET analysis confirms an increase of porosity in TP8 sample with an average pore volume of 0.36 cm³ g⁻¹. High photocatalytic activity (98.77%) towards Methylene blue dye degradation is observed for TP8 sample having 8 wt% of PANI and it is explained through the combined effect of structural porosity of TiO2 and synergic effect of PANI. The Kappa value at pH 11 (0.01372 min⁻¹) is found to be 7.84-folds higher than that of the photocatalytic reaction at pH 3 (Kappa = 0.00175 min⁻¹). While pristine TiO2 exhibits the minimum removal efficiency (89.57%) with Kappa of 0.00756 min⁻¹. Kappa value of catalysis reaction for TP8 is found to be almost 2-fold higher than pristine TiO2. Quantum Yield value for TP8 is found to be 3.59 × 10⁻⁴ molecules photon⁻¹. This high Quantum Yield value of present photocatalytic system explicates the low energy consumption for the treatment of textile dye pollutant. Additionally, STY value (1.79 × 10⁻⁵ molecules photon⁻¹ mg⁻¹) confirms the outstanding mineralization strength of TP8 by a unit mass for high amounts of MB dye per unit time. Thus, the present study offers an excellent photocatalyst i.e., TP8 having 8 wt% of PANI for the degradation of MB dye.
... 39 The authors suggested that PANI played an active role in the degradation of p-cresol by TiO 2 /ZnO/PANI by transferring electrons to the conduction band of TiO 2 /ZnO and also trapped holes, leading to charge separation. 39 In another study, Masid et al. suggested the same mechanism when they used PANI/TiO 2 to degrade a dye, reactive blue 4. 79 However, there is no experimental data to support the suggested degradation mechanisms. In this study, we provide experimental data showing which reactive oxygen species were responsible for the degradation. ...
Polyaniline (PANI)-wrapped TiO2 nanorods (PANI/TiO2), obtained through the oxidative polymerization of aniline at the surface of hydrothermally presynthesized TiO2 nanorods, were evaluated as photocatalysts for the degradation of Bisphenol A (BPA). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed the successful incorporation of PANI into TiO2 by the appearance of peaks at 1577 and 1502 cm–1 that are due to the C═C and C–N stretch of the benzenoid or quinoid ring in PANI. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis revealed that PANI/TiO2 had almost double the surface area of TiO2 (44.8999 m²/g vs 28.2179 m²/g). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed that TiO2 nanorods with different diameters were synthesized. The TEM analysis showed that a thin layer of PANI wrapped the TiO2 nanorods. X-ray photon spectroscopy survey scan of the PANI/TiO2 nanocomposite revealed the presence of C, O, Ti, and N. Photocatalytic activity evaluation under UV radiation through the effect of key parameters, including pH, contact time, dosage, and initial concentration of BPA, was carried out in batch studies. Within 80 min, 99.7% of 5 ppm BPA was attained using the 0.2 g/L PANI/TiO2 photocatalyst at pH 10. The quantum yield (QY) of these photocatalysts was evaluated to be 9.86 × 10–5 molecules/photon and 2.82 × 10–5 molecules/photon for PANI/TiO2 and TiO2, respectively. PANI/TiO2 showed better performance than as-synthesized TiO2 with a rate constant of 4.46 × 10–2 min–1 compared to 2.18 × 10–2 min–1. The rate of degradation of PANI/TiO2 was also superior to that of TiO2 (150 mmol/g/h vs 74.89 mmol/g/h). Nitrate ions increased the rate of degradation of BPA, while humic acid consistently inhibited the degradation of BPA. LC–MS analysis identified degradation products with m/z 213.1, 135.1, and 93.1. The PANI/TiO2 nanocomposite was reused up to five cycles with a removal of at least 80% in the fifth cycle. LC–MS results revealed three possible BPA degradation intermediates. LC–MS analysis identified degradation products which included protonated BPA, [C14H13O2⁺], and [C9H11O⁺]. The PANI/TiO2 nanocomposite demonstrated superior photocatalytic activity with respect to improved QY and figure of merit and lower energy consumption.
... However, despite the strong potential demonstrated by photocatalysts, their application in practical setups is severely compromised because most photocatalysts are active under a limited region of the solar spectrum, and suffer from high recombination rates of the photogenerated electron-hole species. In all, these features ultimately lower the water remediation efficiency of the photocatlysts [11,12]. In order to overcome these challenges, many investigations focused on chemically modifying the bandgap of photocatalytic materials have been conducted [13,14]. ...
Smart catalysts that can simultaneously utilize multiple energy sources will have a significant positive impact on the inefficiencies of conventional environmental remediation approaches, and will address their high energy demands. In this work, we have manufactured multiferroic magnetoelectric photocatalysts that can be simultaneously activated using multiple energy sources for the degradation of organic pollutants. The catalysts are composed of CoFe2O4@BiFeO3 (CFO@BFO) nanooctahedrons (NOs), CFO@BFO nanocubes (NCs), and CFO@BFO nanowires (NWs), and were successful in harnessing energy from three different energy sources, including UV-vis light, acoustically mediated mechanical vibrations and magnetic fields. The CFO@BFO NOs displayed the most enhanced degradation, reaching 93%, 96%, and 99% degradation of RhB dye within 1 h under light, ultrasound, and magnetic fields, respectively. When these energy sources were used simultaneously, significantly increased reaction rates were observed compared to the single-energy source stimulation. Results of radical trapping experiments indicate that radical species i.e., OH· and O2·- play a dominant role in catalytic degradation of organic pollutant, RhB, under all three stimuli. These results will contribute significantly to the development of new environmental technologies that are highly versatile in nature and able to adapt to changing environments to deliver efficient environmental remediation.
... The RuO2-TiO2/DPA/PANI nanocomposite has the same optical properties as the PANI; the corresponding spectrum is almost similar to that of the polyaniline represented in the literature [61,62]. The spectrum reveals the increase of the absorbance with the appearance of a small wave between 469 and 510 nm, corresponding to the π-π* transition in the polymeric chain [63]. The increase in the absorption of the two nanocomposites is due to the delocalization of the carrier's n-π* [64]. ...
Massive industrial and agricultural developments have led to adverse effects of environmental pollution resisting conventional treatment processes. The issue can be addressed via heterogeneous photocatalysis as witnessed recently. Herein, we have developed novel metal/semi-conductor/polymer nanocomposite for the catalyzed degradation and mineralization of model organic dye pollutants in darkness. RuO2-TiO2 mixed oxide nanoparticles (NPs) were modified with diphenyl amino (DPA) groups from the 4-diphenylamine diazonium salt precursor. The latter was reduced with ascorbic acid to provide radicals that modified the NPs and further served for in situ synthesis of polyaniline (PANI) that resulted in RuO2/TiO2-DPA-PANI nanocomposite catalyst. Excellent adhesion of PANI to RuO2/TiO2-DPA was noted but not in the case of the bare mixed oxide. This stresses the central role of diazonium compounds to tether PANI to the underlying mixed oxide. RuO2-TiO2/DPA/PANI nanocomposite revealed superior catalytic properties in the degradation of Methyl Orange (MO) compared to RuO2-TiO2/PANI and RuO2-TiO2. Interestingly, it is active even in the darkness due to high PANI mass loading. In addition, PANI constitutes a protective layer of RuO2-TiO2 NPs that permitted us to reuse the RuO2-TiO2/DPA/PANI nanocomposite nine times, whereas RuO2-TiO2/PANI and RuO2-TiO2 were reused seven and five times only, respectively. The electronic displacements at the interface of the heterojunction metal/semi-conductor under visible light and the synergistic effects between PANI and RuO2 result in the separation of electron-hole pairs and a reduction of its recombination rate as well as a significant catalytic activity of RuO2-TiO2/DPA/PANI under simulated sunlight and in the dark, respectively.
The application of dye sensitized photocatalysis for the degradation of surfactant in the model wastewater has been studied. The aim was to explore the possibility of the photocatalytic activity enhancement by introducing the waste toner powder in the photocatalytic films. The development and a partial characterization of the supported catalyst were described within this study. Waste toner and commercial TiO2 powder (AEROXIDE® P25) were integrated within the matrix of chitosan molecules as a thin layer films. The developed films contain the high amount of the TiO2 (approx. 90%) which structure appeared to be intact. The efficiency of the photocatalytic films for the oxidation of the anionic surfactant dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) has been evaluated. Preliminary experiments were performed in an annular batch reactor using UVC lamp. Photocatalytic films were supported on the glass, stainless steel and waste offset printing plates. Support was made in a form of plates or rings. Further experiments were performed under artificial and natural solar irradiation whereby photocatalytic films were fixed at the bottom of reaction cell (boat shaped flow reactor). In order to estimate the reaction rate constant for SDBS degradation over irradiated photocatalytic films and to evaluate the effects of photon absorption under different irradiation conditions, a detailed kinetic model was developed. The sensitization effect of the components in toner powder due to the visible light absorption for the photocatalytic oxidation of SDBS under solar irradiation was quantified.
TiO2 photocatalysts have been applied in treating wide range of organic contaminants, ranging from dye effluents to persistent organic pollutants. Discharging of those contaminants has polluted our natural water resources and reduced the quality and quantity of the clean water for our daily usage. Although TiO2 photocatalysts show high removal efficiency towards most of the pollutants, the fast recombination rate and large bandgap impede its practical use under visible light irradiation. Considerable efforts have been employed to immobilize TiO2 onto different substrates, particularly on polymer owing to their highly abundance and low cost. This chapter highlighted the various types of polymer-supported TiO2 photocatalyst in degrading organic pollutants.
In this study, polyaniline-titanium dioxide (PAni-TiO2) nanocomposite has been prepared and was utilized as an effective catalyst for photodegradation of methylene blue (MB) dyes from aqueous solution. Adsorption characteristic on the PAni-TiO2 surface and the aqueous solubility of the dyes also play an important role in the photodegradation of dye. Adsorption and photodegradation process occurs simultaneously on the surface of the catalyst at first adsorption occurs (21.5%) on the outer surface of the catalyst and then photodegrade the material up to (66.5%). In reaction mechanism OH makes the vital role to the degradation of methylene blue and its intermediates. To know the surface and stability of the photocatalyst, it was characterized by FTIR, TEM, TGA–DTA, XRD, UV-vis spectrophotometer, and SEM analysis. Kinetic data indicate that up to 20 minutes photodegradation rates usually follows the pseudo-first-order reaction. After 20 minutes, it follows the Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH) kinetics. Photo reactivity of PAni-TiO2 was studied with pH of solution, dosage of photocatalyst and concentration of dye. The reaction rate constant (r) and equilibrium binding constant (K) values were incredibly significant than other catalyst.
The characteristics of the UV illumination-assisted degradation of Malachite green (MG) on highly active nanostructured-anatase
TiO2, bulk Polyaniline (PAni), PAni nanoparticles and PAni-TiO2 nanocomposites have been studied. Dodecylbenzene sulphonic acid doped PAni-TiO2 nanocomposites were synthesized by a water-assisted self-assembly method. Samples were characterized using transmission electron
microscopy, X-ray diffraction studies, Fourier Transform Infra red spectroscopy and photoluminescence studies. Photoluminescence
intensity of TiO2 nanoparticles was found to decrease with the increase of PAni in the nanocomposite which can be attributed to the reduction
of electron-hole pair recombination at the interface of PAni and TiO2 due to electron transfer from TiO2 to PAni. Exposure to UV light brought about the photocatalytic oxidation of MG in contact with bulk PAni, PAni and TiO2 nanoparticles, and PAni-TiO2 nanocomposites. The decrease in absorbance was measured, and its kinetics was analyzed using the Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetic
model. PAni-TiO2 nanocomposites exhibit higher photocatalytic activity than pure TiO2 nanoparticles, bulk PAni and PAni nanoparticles under the same degradation condition for MG. The enhanced photocatalytic
activity of nanocomposites is attributed to the electron transfer from TiO2 to PAni resulting in enhancing the oxidative property of the TiO2 nanoparticles.
During the last few years, there has been a plethora of research and development in the area of solar photocatalysis (TiO2 and photo-Fenton). This overview, of the most recent papers on the use of sunlight to produce the OH, comments on those most relevant to the development of the technology and summarizes most of the recent research related to the degradation of water contaminants, and how solar photocatalysis (coupled with biotreatment) could significantly contribute to the treatment of very persistent toxic compounds. Various solar reactors for photocatalytic water treatment based mainly on nonconcentrating collectors developed during the last few years are also described in detail. This review also reports the use of the photocatalytic processes (TiO2) to inactivate microorganisms present in water, placing special emphasis on those applications that make use of sunlight. Work on water disinfection mechanisms in the last decade is summarized in the last part of this overview, with attention to some experimental systems developed to optimize this disinfection technology.
In order to effectively utilize visible light in photocatalytic reactions, we have developed S-doped TiO2 particles. They show strong absorption for visible light and high activities for degradation of methylene blue in aqueous solution under irradiation at wavelengths longer than 440 nm. The oxidation state of the S atoms incorporated into the TiO2 particles is determined to be S6+ from the XPS spectra.
Nanocrystalline TiO 2 was synthesized by controlled hydrolysis of titanium tetraisopropoxide. The anatase phase was converted to rutile phase by thermal treatment at 1023 K for 11 h. The catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), Fourier-transform infrared absorption spectrophotometry (FT-IR) and N 2 adsorption (BET) at 77 K. This study compare the photocatalytic activity of the anatase and rutile phases of nanocrystalline TiO 2 for the degradation of acetophenone, nitrobenzene, methylene blue and malachite green present in aqueous solutions. The initial rate of degradation was calculated to compare the photocatalytic activity of anatase and rutile nanocrystalline TiO 2 for the degradation of different substances under ultraviolet light irradiation. The higher photocatalytic activity was obtained in anatase phase TiO 2 for the degradation of all substances as compared with rutile phase. It is concluded that the higher photocatalytic activity in anatase TiO 2 is due to parameters like band-gap, number of hydroxyl groups, surface area and porosity of the catalyst.
The civilian, commercial, and defense sectors of most advanced industrialized nations are faced with a tremendous set of environmental problems related to the remediation of hazardous wastes, contaminated groundwaters, and the control of toxic air contaminants. Problems with hazardous wastes at military installations are related in part to the disposal of chemical wastes in lagoons, underground storage tanks, and dump sites. Typical wastes of concern include heavy metals, aviation fuel, military-vehicle fuel, solvents and degreasing agents, and chemical byproducts from weapons manufacturing. In the civilian sector, the elimination of toxic and hazardous chemical substances such as the halogenated hydrocarbons from waste effluents and previously contaminated sites has become a major concern. General classes of compounds of concern include: solvents, volatile organics, chlorinated volatile organics, dioxins, dibenzofurans, pesticides, PCB's, chlorophenols, asbestos, heavy metals, and arsenic compounds. Advanced physicochemical processes such as semiconductor photocatalysis are intended to be both supplementary and complementary to some of the more conventional approaches to the destruction or transformation of hazardous chemical wastes such as high-temperature incineration, amended activated sludge digestion, anaerobic digestion, and conventional physicochemical treatment. 441 refs.
Polyaniline (PANI)–TiO2 nanocomposites possessing both nano and microscale structures were prepared through a facile hydrothermal route in the presence
of PANI. The nanopapilla particles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy
dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectra, X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectra, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and N2 adsorption analysis, etc. The results show that the composites possess both nano and microscale structures. The TiO2 nanorods are dispersed on PANI with one end fixed to the surface. The photocatalytic properties of the powders were verified
by the photodegradation of gaseous acetone under UV (λ=254nm) and visible-light irradiation (λ>400nm). In fact, the photocatalytic effects exhibited by the composite particles were superior to that of pure TiO2 and P25 samples. This excellent behavior is attributed to the structural features of PANI–TiO2 microspheres and the synergistic effect between PANI and TiO2 which facilitates a larger amount of surface active sites. This in turn causes a faster charge separation and slower charge
recombination which results in a more efficient decomposition of gaseous pollutants.
KeywordsPolyaniline–TiO2
–Nanopapilla structure–Photocatalyst
A series of polyaniline–anatase TiO2 (PANI–TiO2) nanocomposite powders with different PANI:TiO2 ratios were prepared by ‘in-situ’ deposition oxidative polymerization of aniline hydrochloride using ammonium persulfate (APS) as oxidant in the presence of ultrafine grade powder of anatase TiO2 cooled in an ice bath. And the solid-phase photocatalytic degradation of PANI–TiO2 nanocomposites was investigated under the ambient air in order to assess the feasibility of developing photodegradable polymers. The photodegradation of the composite powders was compared with that of pure PANI powders by performing weight loss monitoring, elemental analysis, FT-IR and UV–vis spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The PANI–TiO2 nanocomposite powders showed highly enhanced photodegradation and the photodegradation increased with decreasing ratios of PANI:TiO2. A weight loss of about 6.8% was found for the PANI–TiO2 (1:3) nanocomposite; however, the weight loss of the PANI–HCl powder was only 0.3% after being irradiated for 60 h under air. The photocatalytic degradation of the nanocomposite powders accompanied the peak intensity decrease in the FT-IR spectra at 1235 cm−1, attributed to C–N stretching mode for benzenoid unit, and the depigmentation of the powders due to the visible light scattering from growing cavities. The elemental analysis and XPS analysis of the composite showed that the bulk and surface concentrations of N decreased with irradiation. A possible mechanism for the photocatalytical oxidative degradation was also mentioned.
Synthetic dyes are a major part of our life as they are found in the various products ranging from clothes to leather accessories to furniture. An unfortunate side effect of their widespread use is the fact that up to 12% of these dyes are wasted during the dyeing process, and that approximately 20% of this wastage enters the environment (mostly in water supply). Not surprisingly, various approaches have been developed to remove and degrade these carcinogenic dyes from the natural environment. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are the most widely used approach that is employed for dye degradation studies. Over the past few years, there has been an enormous amount of work that has been done with AOPs and as a result various kinds of AOPs have been developed. The aim of this review is to address the fundamentals of one kind of AOP, namely, photocatalytic, and how it is used for dye degradations in aqueous suspensions using TiO2 as a catalyst. Since AOPs rely on the generation and subsequent reaction of highly reactive oxygen radicals with dyes, there are many factors that can affect the efficiency of this process. Hence, this review will attempt to summarize and highlight the effect of a variety of conditions on TiO2-photocatalysed decoloration of dyes, such as amount of catalyst, reaction pH, light intensity, concentration of organic dye, and the presence of additives such as ions. This review also summarizes the degradation pathways that azo dyes undergo, with some of the intermediates that are generated during their degradation. Finally, a survey is presented of the various classes of dyes and their relative ease of degradation by AOPs.
Even though heterogeneous photocatalysis appeared in many forms, photodegradation of organic pollutants has recently been the most widely investigated. By far, titania has played a much larger role in this scenario compared to other semiconductor photocatalysts due to its cost effectiveness, inert nature and photostability. Extensive literature analysis has shown many possibilities of improving the efficiency of photodecomposition over titania by combining the photoprocess with either physical or chemical operations. The resulting combined processes revealed a flexible line of action for wastewater treatment technologies. The choice of treatment method usually depends upon the composition of the wastewater. However, a lot more is needed from engineering design and modelling for successful application of the laboratory scale techniques to large-scale operation. The present review paper seeks to offer an overview of the dramatic trend in the use of the TiO2 photocatalyst for remediation and decontamination of wastewater, report the recent work done, important achievements and problems.
Solar cells based on dye-sensitized mesoporous films of TiO2 arelow-cost alternatives to conventional solid-state devices. Impressive solar-to-electrical energy conversion efficiencies have been achieved with such films when used in conjunction with liquid electrolytes. Practical advantages may be gained by the replacement of the liquid electrolyte with a solid charge-transport material. Inorganic p-type semiconductors, and organic materials have been tested in this regard, but in all cases the incident monochromatic photon-to-electron conversion efficiency remained low. Here we describe a dye-sensitized heterojunction of TiO2 with the amorphous organic hole-transport material 2,2',7,7'-tetrakis(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenyl-amine)9,9'-spirobifluorene (OMeTAD; refs. 10 and 11). Photoinduced charge-carrier generation at the heterojunction is very efficient. A solar cell based on OMeTAD converts photons to electric current with a high yield of 33%.
Although n-type titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a promising substrate for photogeneration of hydrogen from water, most attempts at doping this material so that it absorbs
light in the visible region of the solar spectrum have met with limited success. We synthesized a chemically modified n-type
TiO2 by controlled combustion of Ti metal in a natural gas flame. This material, in which carbon substitutes for some of the lattice
oxygen atoms, absorbs light at wavelengths below 535 nanometers and has a lower band-gap energy than rutile (2.32 versus 3.00
electron volts). At an applied potential of 0.3 volt, chemically modified n-type TiO2 performs water splitting with a total conversion efficiency of 11% and a maximum photoconversion efficiency of 8.35% when
illuminated at 40 milliwatts per square centimeter. The latter value compares favorably with a maximum photoconversion efficiency
of 1% for n-type TiO2biased at 0.6 volt.
The present monograph attempts to unify these diverse and exciting new developments within a common framework. First, the physical principles underlying heterogenous electron-transfer processes are outlined in a concise way and are compared to the homogeneous counterpart. This analysis includes the notion of the Fermi level in liquids and solids as well as the distribution of electronic energy levels in solids and liquids. A comparison is made between the salient kinetic features of homogeneous and heterogeneous electron transfer reactions. This establishes the basis for the subsequent treatment of the transduction of excitation energy and photo-initiated electron transfer in organized molecular assemblies, such as micelles, vesicles and monolayers. Transmembrane redox processes are critically reviewed. Particular attention is given to semiconductor electrodes and particles. This includes a discussion of quantum size effects, the nature of space charge layers as well as surface states and the dynamics of charge carrier-induced redox reactions at the semiconductor solution interface. These processes are of fundamental importance in such diverse fields as photochromism, electrochromic displays, electroreprography and photography, information storage, photocatalysis, photodegradation of paints, and solar energy conversion.
Polyaniline (PANI) as a promising conducting polymer has been used to prepare polyaniline/TiO2 (PANI/TiO2) nanocomposite with core-shell structure as photocatalyst. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles with an average crystal size of 21 nm were encapsulated by PANI via the in situ polymerization of aniline on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles. FT–IR, UV-Vis-NIR, XRD, SEM and TEM techniques were used to characterize the PANI/TiO2 core-shell nanocomposite. Photocatalytic activity of PANI/TiO2 nanocomposite was investigated under both UV and visible light irradiations and compared with unmodified TiO2 nanoparticles. Results indicated deposition of PANI on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles which improved the photocatalytic activity of pristine TiO2 nanoparticles.
Herein we obtain a novel incorporating style of polyaniline (PANI)/TiO2 composites (Ns) via a designed two-step route. In comparison with conventional incorporating style (Cs), one-dimensional (1D) PANI is introduced in the step of TiO2 crystal growth instead of after crystallization. During the hydrothermal process, 1D PANI can act as an effective template to stabilize TiO2 particles at nanoscale through interfacial chemical bonds. In this way, the transition of some newly formed anatase crystals to rutile phase is partly suppressed. Also, the as-prepared composites show obvious light response in a wide range of 230–900 nm due to the sensitizing effect of PANI. Ns exhibit the improved visible photocatalytic property with scarce decrease of UV photoactivity. Overall, this work would provide new insights into the fabrication of conducting polymer/semiconductor composites with desired nanostructure as high performance photocatalysts and would facilitate their applications in environmental purification and solar energy conversion.
Polyaniline (PANI)/titanium dioxide (TiO2) composites were prepared with a chemical oxidation polymerization of aniline monomer (ANI) with various molar ratios between ANI and para toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA). To find an effect of the [ANI]:[p-TSA] molar ratio on the electrochemical properties of the prepared PANI/TiO2 composites, the composites were synthesized under same conditions except the p-TSA concentrations. The prepared composite films had more homogeneous TiO2 dispersion with changing [ANI]:[p-TSA] molar ratios from 6:1 to 1:1. p-TSA surfactant-like doping acid helped the dispersion of TiO2 particles in the PANI matrix. PANI covering the TiO2 surfaces was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Prepared PANI films on the TiO2 particles had the smoothest surface when the ANI and p-TSA had 1:1 molar ratio in the reaction solution. The composite prepared with molar ratio [ANI]:[p-TSA] of 3:1 had the highest capacitance (800 F g−1) among the prepared composites.
A novel and simple method for preparing highly photoactive nanocrystalline F--doped TiO2 photocatalyst with anatase and brookite phase was developed by hydrolysis of titanium tetraisopropoxide in a mixed NH4F-H2O solution. The prepared F-doped TiO2 powders were characterized by differential thermal analysis-thermogravimetry (DTA-TG), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectra (PL), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and BET surface areas. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated by the photocatalytic oxidation of acetone in air. The results showed that the crystallinity of anatase was improved upon F- doping. Moreover, fluoride ions not only suppressed the formation of brookite phase but also prevented phase transition of anatase to rutile. The F-doped TiO2 samples exhibited stronger absorption in the UV-visible range with a red shift in the band gap transition. The photocatalytic activity of F-doped TiO2 powders prepared by this method exceeded that of Degussa P25 when the molar ratio of NH4F to H2O was kept in the range of 0.5-3.
AbstractA PANI/TiO2 composite film deposited on the glass surface was successfully prepared using sol-gel dip-coating technique and chemical oxidation method. The film was characterized using XRD, AFM, and UV. The result showed that the TiO2 film consists of both cuboid-shaped and anatase-phased TiO2 nanoparticles. The average grain size of TiO2 in the film was approximately 20 nm. After coating with PANI, the particle was changed into irregular spherical-shaped and the size was increased up to approximately 35 nm in diameter. UV-Vis spectroscopy analysis indicated that the coating of TiO2 with PANI would result in an enhancement of photocatalytic efficiency and an extension of the photoresponse of TiO2. The band gap of the PANI/TiO2 film was 3.18 eV. The photocatalytic property of the film was evaluated by the degradation of rhodamine-B. It was found that 67.1% and 83.2% of rhodamine-B could be degraded under sunlight and UV irradiation within 120 min using the PANI/TiO2 composite film as photocatalyst.
Polyaniline (PAn) sensitized nanocrystalline TiO2 composite photocatalyst (PAn/TiO2) with high activity and easy separation was facilely prepared by in situ chemical oxidation of aniline from the surfaces
of the TiO2 nanoparticles. The morphology, structure, and light absorption properties of composite photocatalyst were examined in term
of its application to photocatalysis. The photocatalytic activity of PAn/TiO2 nanocomposites for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) aqueous solution was investigated and compared with pure TiO2. The spectra analyses illustrated that, when PAn deposited on the surface of TiO2, the crystalline behavior of PAn was hampered and the degree of crystallinity decreased, and the characteristic peaks of
the PAn were shifted indicating that there was a strong interaction between PAn and TiO2 nanoparticles. PAn was able to sensitize TiO2 efficiently and the composite photocatalyst could be activated by absorbing both the ultraviolet and visible light (λ = 190–800 nm), whereas pure TiO2 absorbed ultraviolet light only (λ
This study investigated the role of the band gap, surface area, and phase composition on the photocatalytic activity of nanocrystalline TiO2. Nanocrystalline TiO2 (8-29 nm) was synthesized by hydrolysis of titanium tetraisopropoxide. The crystalline structure, band gap, and morphology of the nanocrystalline TiO2 were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), and N-2 adsorption (BET) at 77 K, respectively. It is observed that the band gap of the nanocrystalline TiO2 decreases from 3.29 to 3.01 eV with increasing calcination temperature. The crystallite size of the TiO2 samples prepared also shows an increase with increasing calcination temperature. The photocatalytic degradation of an aqueous solution of nitrobenzene (50 ppm) was studied using nanocrystalline TiO2 samples with varying band-gap values, as well as a P-25 Degussa TiO2 sample for comparison. The initial rate of degradation of nitrobenzene was calculated in each case to evaluate the photocatalytic activity of the catalysts. The enhanced photocatalytic degradation of nitrobenzene was observed by purging air through the solution during photocatalysis.
Polythiophene/titanium dioxide (PT/TiO2) composites were prepared by the in situ chemical oxidative polymerization method. The resulting PT/TiO2 composites were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM). UV–Vis diffuse reflectance spectra measurements show that the PT/TiO2 composites can adsorb light of wavelengths ranging from 200nm to 800nm. The PT/TiO2 composites showed good adsorption properties and were more efficient in removing dye from solution than pure PT and pure TiO2. The PT/TiO2 composites exhibited photocatalytic activities to some extent under UV light illumination.
Polypyrrole/TiO2 composite is prepared by in situ polymerization of pyrrole on the TiO2 template. The TiO2 microbelts are prepared by sol–gel method using the absorbent cotton template for the first time. Then the TiO2 microbelts are used as template for the preparation of polypyrrole/TiO2 composites. The structure, morphology and properties of the composites are characterized with scanning electron microscope (SEM), IR and Network Analyzer. A possible formation mechanism of TiO2 microbelts and polypyrrole/TiO2 composites has been proposed. The effect of the molar ratio of pyrrole/TiO2 on the photocatalysis properties and microwave loss properties of the composites is investigated.
PANI modified core–shell mesoporous TiO2 (PANI/M-TiO2) with efficient photocatalytic capability under visible light irradiation was fabricated by hydrothermal method and chemisorption approach. The nitrogen adsorption–desorption characterization indicated that the specific surface area of mesoporous M-TiO2 was 2.8 times as great as that of P25, which resulted in the increased uptake of PANI molecule on the surface of M-TiO2. Environmental scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy images demonstrated that the PANI/M-TiO2 possessed a unique core–shell structure, which allowed multiple reflection or scattering of light in the photocatalyst and led to the increase of optical path length subsequently. Both the increased uptake of PANI molecules and optical path length in photocatalyst contributed to enhance the visible light absorption. The UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectra confirmed that the optical absorption for PANI/M-TiO2 was more intensive than that for PANI modified TiO2 nanoparticle (PANI/NP-TiO2) in the visible light region. The intensive visible light absorption and effective charge separation owing to the heterojunction built between TiO2 and PANI lead to remarkable improvement of visible light photocatalysis. The pseudo-first-order kinetic constant of photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B and 4-chlorophenol under visible light irradiation with 6% PANI/M-TiO2 was 5.04 and 2.03 times as great as that with PANI/NP-TiO2 respectively, showing the advantage of the unique core–shell mesoporous structure in the PANI/M-TiO2 for efficient photocatalysis.
Titanium dioxide doped polyaniline has been prepared by in situ polymerization. TiO2 nanoparticles with an average diameter about 20 nm were used as a dopant of polyaniline. The doping effect of TiO2 was characterized and evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and electrical conductivity measurement. SEM study shows that TiO2 nanoparticles have a strong effect on the morphology of composites. The FT-IR spectra reveal that the interaction between TiO2 and polyaniline (PANI) is primarily based on the formation of H-bonding. Electrical conductivity measurements indicate that the conductivity of composites at low TiO2 content is much higher than that of neat PANI, while with the increasing contents of TiO2, the conductivity shows an orderly decrease.
Nanosized C-doped TiO 2 was prepared by a new method based on resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) gel formation in situ during hydrolysis of Ti precursor (TTIP, titanium tetraisopropoxide). XRD, DRS, EDX, SEM and HRTEM results confirmed that the carbon in the sample existed as free carbon (C–C), carbonate carbon (–CO 3 ) and doped into lattice of TiO 2 (Ti–C), resulting in red shift of optical adsorption edge and band gap narrowing. The photo activity of the C-doped TiO 2 , tested on 2-chlorophenol, revealed that it was more active under visible light (k vis = 3.50 × 10 −3 min −1 ).
This paper describes the photoelectrochemical response in aqueous electrolyte of nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide, TiO2-xNx. Thin film electrodes were prepared by reactive DC magnetron sputtering in an environment of Ar, O2, and N2. A typical film thickness was 0.85 μm. The crystal structure of the photoelectrochemically active films was mainly of rutile character, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy showed a highly porous parallel penniform nanostructure. It was conclusively shown that dioxygen could be generated from water by illumination of the TiO2-xNx electrodes at moderate anodic potentials. The current density under 1000 W m-2 visible light from a sulfur lamp was 0.2 mA cm-2 at 0.55 V vs Ag/AgCl. Current−voltage characteristics under illumination were strongly dependent on the scan direction. Scanning the electrode from cathodic toward anodic potentials gave an onset potential similar to that of normal rutile TiO2, whereas a reversed scan gave an onset of photocurrent (depending on the light source) anodically upshifted by up to 0.8 V from its normal position. Moreover, a cathodic current was observed during the latter scans. This current was induced by the illumination at anodic potentials. This nonfaradic current was ascribed to photoinduced electron trap states distributed in an approximately 1.3 V wide range negative of the conduction band (CB) edge. These states also were active as electron−hole recombination centers. The density of this new set of states was 2 × 1020 cm-3, i.e., similar to the density of nitrogen atoms. They can be activated by light, even at wavelengths beyond 700 nm, and work as long-lived electron traps; hence, they have properties that are different from those of the earlier found Ti3+ (3d) states, also located below the CB of TiO2. The new states occur as a consequence of the nitrogen doping, but is not necessarily an intrinsic property of pure TiO2-xNx. Recombination via the new statesin conjunction with slow hole transport in the nitrogen-created band above the valence band edgewas suggested to be the cause of the large anodic shift of the onset potential for cathodic scans and of the moderate water oxidation efficiency of the TiO2-xNx thin film electrodes.
A systematic study of metal ion doping in quantum (Q)-sized (2-4 nm) TiO_2 colloids is performed by measuring their photoreactivities and the transient charge carrier recombination dynamics. The presence of metal ion dopants in the TiO_2 crystalline matrix significantly influences photoreactivity, charge carrier recombination rates, and interfacial electron-transfer rates. The photoreactivities of 21 metal ion-doped colloids are quantified in terms of both the conduction band electron reduction of an electron acceptor (CCl_4 dechlorination) and the valence band hole oxidation of an electron donor (CHCl_3 degradation). Doping with Fe^(3+), Mo^(5+), Ru^(3+), Os^(3+), Re^(5+), V^(4+), and Rh^(3+) at 0.1-0.5 at.% significantly increases the photoreactivity for both oxidation and reduction while Co^(3+) and Al^(3+) doping decreases the photoreactivity. The transient absorption signals upon laser flash photolysis (λ_(ex) = 355 nm) at λ = 600 nm are extended up to 50 ms for Fe^(3+)-, V^(4+)-, Mo^(5+)-, and Ru^(3+)-doped TiO_2 while the undoped Q-sized TiO_2 shows a complete "blue electron" signal decay within 200 μs. Co^(3+)- and Al^(3+)-doped TiO_2 are characterized by rapid signal decays with a complete loss of absorption signals within 5 μs. The quantum yields obtained during CW photolyses are quantitatively correlated with the measured transient absorption signals of the charge carriers. Photoreactivities
are shown to increase with the relative concentration of trapped charge carriers. The photoreactivity of doped TiO_2 appears to be a complex function of the dopant concentration, the energy level of dopants within the TiO_2 lattice, their d electronic configuration, the distribution of dopants, the electron donor concentration, and the light intensity.
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles were modified by polyaniline (PANI) using ‘in situ’ chemical oxidative polymerization method in hydrochloric acid solutions. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FT-IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectrum (XPS) and UV–vis spectra were carried out to characterize the composites with different PANI contents. The photocatalytic degradation of phenol was chosen as a model reaction to evaluate the photocatalytic activities of the modified catalysts. Results show that TiO2 nanoparticles are deposited by PANI to mitigate TiO2 particles agglomeration. The modification does not alter the crystalline structure of the TiO2 nanoparticles according to the X-ray diffraction patterns. UV–vis spectra reveal that PANI-modified TiO2 composites show stronger absorption than neat TiO2 under the whole range of visible light. The resulting PANI-modified TiO2 composites exhibit significantly higher photocatalytic activity than that of neat TiO2 on degradation of phenol aqueous solution under visible light irradiation (λ ≥ 400 nm). An optimum of the synergetic effect is found for an initial molar ratio of aniline to TiO2 equal to 1/100.
TiO 2 (110) single crystals, doped with nitrogen via an NH 3 treatment at 870 K, have been found to exhibit photoactivity at photon energies down to 2.4 eV, which is 0.6 eV below the band-gap energy for rutile TiO 2 . The active dopant state of the interstitial nitrogen that is responsible for this effect exhibits an N (1s) binding energy of 399.6 eV and is due to a form of nitrogen that is probably bound to hydrogen, which differs from the substitutional nitride state with an N (1s) binding energy of 396.7 eV. Optical absorption measurements also show enhanced absorption down to 2.4 eV for the NH 3 -treated TiO 2 (110). A co-doping effect between nitrogen and hydrogen is postulated to be responsible for the enhanced photoactivity of nitrogen-doped TiO 2 materials in the range of visible light.
The photoreactivity of sol-gel (SG)-TiO2 films was enhanced significantly with addition of a small amount of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) into the starting solution. The promoting effect was confirmed in two separate experiments of the methylsiloxane monolayer oxidation and the photocurrent measurements. The results of film characterization indicated that the absorption coefficient for ultraviolet light ( < 360="" nm)="" increases="" due="" to="" film="" densification="" and="" the="" crystallinity="" is="" improved="" upon="" f="" doping.="" the="" improvement="" in="" the="" photoreactivity="" was="" ultimately="" attributed="" to="" the="" increase="" in="" the="" rate="" at="" which="" the="" photogenerated="" charge="" carriers="" reach="" the="" surface="" in="" the="" photostationary="">
A series of polyaniline (PANI)-sensitized TiO2 composite photocatalysts (PANI/TiO2) with different mass ratio of polyaniline to nano- TiO2 (P25) (1:200–1:700) were facilely prepared by mixing a tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of camphorsulfonic acid (CSA)-doped polyaniline (PANI-CSA) and TiO2 nanoparticle suspension in ethanol. Transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) measurements were used to characterize the resulting composite photocatalysts, and their photocatalytic activities were investigated by degrading methylene blue (MB) under visible-light irradiation (). The results showed that the surface polyaniline sensitization had no effect on the crystalline structure but aggravated the agglomeration of TiO2 nanoparticles by forming multi-particles. After being sensitized by PANI, the light response of TiO2 was extended to visible-light regions and the photocatalytic activity of the composite photocatalysts was enhanced. MB could be degraded more efficiently on PANI/TiO2 than on the bare TiO2 when the mass ratio of polyaniline to TiO2 was in the range 1:400–1:700, and the optimum sensitized effect was found at a mass ratio of 1:500. The determined rate constant of MB degradation over PANI/TiO2 (1:500) was 0.01515 min−1, which is 1.57 times higher than that of bare TiO2 (0.00963 min−1). Furthermore, PANI/TiO2 composite photocatalysts showed good photocatalytic stability after five runs under visible light. The enhancement of photocatalytic activity of the composite photocatalysts could be attributed to the sensitizing effect of PANI. A possible mechanism for the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue is also proposed.
Scientific studies on photocatalysis started about two and a half decades ago. Titanium dioxide (TiO2), which is one of the most basic materials in our daily life, has emerged as an excellent photocatalyst material for environmental purification. In this review, current progress in the area of TiO2 photocatalysis, mainly photocatalytic air purification, sterilization and cancer therapy are discussed together with some fundamental aspects. A novel photoinduced superhydrophilic phenomenon involving TiO2 and its applications are presented.
This paper presents the review of the effects of operating parameters on the photocatalytic degradation of textile dyes using TiO2-based photocatalysts. It further examines various methods used in the preparations of the considered photocatalysts. The findings revealed that various parameters, such as the initial pH of the solution to be degraded, oxidizing agents, temperature at which the catalysts must be calcined, dopant(s) content and catalyst loading exert their individual influence on the photocatalytic degradation of any dye in wastewaters. It was also found out that sol-gel method is widely used in the production of TiO2-based photocatalysts because of the advantage derived from its ability to synthesize nanosized crystallized powder of the photocatalysts of high purity at relatively low temperature.
The kinetics of photocatalytic (TiO(2)/UV) degradation of 2-chlorophenol (2-CP), characterization of intermediates and induction of biodegradability in treated chlorophenol solutions is reported. Approximately 95% of the 2-CP is removed in approximately 2h at pH 5 and 0.2g TiO(2)l(-1) when the 2-CP concentration is < or =100mgl(-1); the pseudo-first-order rate constant (k) is estimated to be 0.0183 min(-1). GC-MS analyses detected phenol, catechol, hydroxyhydroquinone (HHQ), and chlorohydroquinone (CHQ) intermediates during the short irradiation time (<1h); however two other higher carbon intermediates 2-hydroxy-benzaldehyde (HB) and [1.1'-biphenyl]-2,2'-diol (BPD) are found as major intermediates over longer irradiation times. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of treated 2-CP solutions improved substantially. A tentative mechanistic pathway to explain formation of higher carbon intermediates is presented.
The dramatic visible light photocatalytic activity was obtained for the degradation of Methylene Blue (MB) and Rhodamine B (RhB) under visible light irradiation (lambda > 450 nm) after TiO2 photocatalysts were modified with monolayer dispersed polyaniline (PANI) via a facile chemisorption approach. Under visible light irradiation, PANI generated pi-pi* transition, delivering the excited electrons into the conduction band of TiO2, and then the electrons transferred to an adsorbed electron acceptor to yield oxygenous radicals to degrade pollutants. Also, the ultraviolet photocatalytic performance was enhanced to about two times compared with that of P-25 TiO2 photocatalyst. The high photocatalytic activity came from the synergetic effect between PANI and TiO2, which promoted the migration efficiency of photogenerated carriers on the interface of PANI and TiO2. Under ultraviolet light irradiation, photoinduced holes in TiO2 valence band could transfer into HOMO orbital of PANI and then emigrate to the photocatalyst surface and oxidize the adsorbed contaminants directly. The optimum synergetic effect was found at a weight ratio of 3.0 wt % (PANI/ TiO2).
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