Paul Ingram

• Executive at Columbia University

The growing diversity in today’s workplace requires engaging with people who not only look different but also think different. Yet, research on workplace relations has treated similarity-attraction as a human universal and paid limited attention to individual differences in who respects or tolerates different views and values, and why. We address t...

We disentangle two social structural views of fame: whether social structure influences fame directly or through the mechanism of creativity. We test these views in a significant empirical context: 90 pioneers of the early 20th century (1910–25) abstract art movement. Across two different types of ties, we find that social structure shapes fame dir...

Income inequality is emerging as the socioeconomic topic of our era. Yet there is no clear conclusion as to how income inequality affects the most comprehensive human outcome measure, subjective well-being (SWB). This study provides an explanation for the relationship between income inequality and SWB, by delving into its mechanisms, including egal...

The economic effects of social structure are dependent on culture and must be understood in their cultural context. The authors demonstrate this with an analysis of the Liverpool slave trade. They show that as abolitionism became more salient in British culture, connections in a coinvestment network to both slavers and nonslavers mattered much more...

Research summary : We explore captain‐ownership and vessel performance in eighteenth‐century transatlantic shipping. Although contingent compensation often aligned incentives between captains and shipowners, one difficult‐to‐contract hazard was threat of capture during wartime. We exploit variation across time and routes to study the relationship b...

We propose that an individual’s regulatory focus moderates the significant role social network density—the degree of interconnectedness among a person’s social contacts—plays in shaping life satisfaction. Evidence from Study 1 indicates that participants with high prevention effectiveness reported higher life satisfaction when they were embedded in...

Interorganizational relations are nontransitory interactions between two or more organizations.

We ask how the structure of audiences affects the evaluation of producers. We present findings from two different settings showing that audience closure generates a systematic positive influence on evaluations of producers. We attribute this effect to “common ground”, a positive impact on the identification of evaluators with the audience, facilita...

This paper examines the overlap between competition and friendship in networks, an instance of multiplexity that we call the grand duality. We show that managers differ systematically in whether they perceive their friends as competitors. Structure matters, in that managers are more likely to see friends who are the same sex, in the same work unit,...

In this study of the impact of protests against Walmart (a first entrant) on Target (a second entrant) from 1998 to 2008 in U.S. geographic markets, we develop and test a theory of information spillovers from protests against corporations proposing to enter a new market. We argue that the number of protests directed against a first entrant is a noi...

In this paper, we develop an account of the failure of private market-governance institutions to maintain market order by highlighting how control of their distributional function by powerful elites limits their regulatory capacity. We examine the New York Clearing House Association (NYCHA), a private market-governance institution among commercial...

In this paper, we develop an account of the endogenous failure of private market-governance institutions to maintain market order by highlighting how their distributional function limits their regulatory capacity. We examine the New York Clearing House Association (NYCHA), a private market-governance institution among commercial banks in Manhattan...

Purpose – This chapter is intended to help strategy scholars evaluate when, why, and how to employ historical research methods in strategy research. Design/methodology/approach – Drawing on theory and practice of historical research as well as on key examples from the history and strategy literatures, we develop a typology of research approaches to...

What does it mean to have a ‘good’ or ‘bad’ reputation? How does it create or destroy value, or shape chances to pursue particular opportunities? Where do reputations come from? How do we measure them? How do we build and manage them? Over the last twenty years the answers to these questions have become increasingly important – and increasingly pro...

We exploit a historical setting that offers an unusually clean test of the relationship between asset ownership and management incentives: captain ownership of vessels engaged in transatlantic shipping during the 18th century. Although contingent compensation aligned incentives between captains and shipowners regarding most events, there existed on...

The performance of organizations depends partly on the reputations of their industries. Such reputations are “intangible commons.” Interest in protecting mutual welfare motivates members of an industry to engage in self-regulation. However, the current literature tends to have a pessimistic view of the efficacy of self-regulation in solving the pro...

It is widely accepted that entrepreneurial creation affects destruction, as new and better organizations, technologies and transactions replace old ones. This phenomenon is labeled creative destruction, but it might more accurately be called destructive creation, given the driving role of creation in the process. We reverse the typical causal order...

Scholars have long debated the use of asset ownership to align incentives between managers and shareholders. Yet empirical research concerning the relationship between equity ownership by chief executives and organizational performance remains mixed. We exploit a historical setting that offers an unusually clean test of an analogous relationship: c...

Organizations as the basis of the ‘New-World Order’: International Governmental Organizations and bilateral trade As the recent riots at the Seattle meetings of the World Trade Organization indicate, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs) now receive substantial political and public attention. Yet, organizational theorists can say little about how...

Past research recognizes that firms exploit regulatory variations to their advantage but depicts such regulatory arbitrage as a dyadic process between firms and regulators. We extend this account by including a firm’s non-market rivals and suggest that firms view regulatory differences as part of a corporate political opportunity structure and expl...

We disentangle the links between network structures and job performance in two ways. First, we consider a multi-dimensional view of job performance, breaking it down into creativity, decision-making, task execution, and teamwork. Second, we distinguish the effect of structural holes within and across the organizational boundary on job performances....

Identity movements rely on a shared “we-feeling” among a community of participants. In turn, such shared identities are possible when movement participants can self-categorize themselves as belonging to one group. We address a debate as to whether community diversity enhances or impedes such protests, and investigate the role of racial diversity si...

This article examines the population dynamics and viability of network weavers, which are organizations that provide network relations for others. An analysis of the population dynamics of the intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) that are the basis of the interstate networks that influenced global economic relations, peace, and democracy in the 1...

Wal-Mart has increasingly become the target of protests over its scale, manifested as contention over specific expansions. Often, the protests are local and led by local organizations, and as a result, chains face uncertainty whether local activists will organize a protest. We suggest that chain stores respond to this uncertainty through a "test fo...

The authors consider how uncertainty over protest occurrence shapes the strategic interaction between companies and activists. Analyzing Wal-Mart, the authors find support for their theory that companies respond to this uncertainty through a "test for protest" approach. In Wal-Mart's case, this consists of low-cost probes in the form of new store p...

We examine the influence of an interstate network created by intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) on the global diffusion of democracy. We propose that IGOs facilitate democracy’s diffusion by transmitting information between member states and by interpreting that information according to prevailing norms in the world society, where democracy is...

This article examines how managers' tendency to discuss new ideas with others in their professional networks depends on the density of shared ties surrounding a given relationship. Consistent with prior research which found that embeddedness enhances information flow, an egocentric network survey of mid-level executives shows that managers tend to...

The paper explores the conditions that determine the effect of rule enforcement policies that imply an attempt to punish all the visible violations of the rule. We start with a simple game-theoretic analysis that highlights the value of gentle COntinuous Punishment (gentle COP) policies. If the subjects of the rule are rational, gentle COP can elim...

ABSTRACT This article examines,the psychological underpinnings of social networks by drawing on regulatory focus theory—an overarching distinction between two basic motivational systems that underlie people’s self-regulations, motivated cognitions, and strategic preferences. We propose that regulatory focus influences people’s (a) networking strate...

It is now widely accepted that the institutional interventions of states are a foundational influence on the dynamics of organizational forms. But why do states act? In this chapter, we apply the behavioral theory of the firm to develop an explanation of state actions based on the fact that they are boundedly rational rivals. The instrument of stat...

This paper compares the function of public vs. private institutions and studies conditions that influence their effectiveness. We use the population of commercial banks in Manhattan from 1840 to 1980 and investigate the impact of banks "participation in the New York Clearing House Association, an industry-level cooperative arrangement, and the New...

This research investigates hypotheses about differences between Chinese and American managers in the configuration of trusting relationships within their professional networks. Consistent with hypotheses about Chinese familial collectivism, an egocentric network survey found that affect- and cognition-based trust were more intertwined for Chinese t...

Business friendships are increasingly common. Research in organizational behavior has identified a number of benefits to career and organizational performance of these relationships. These instrumental benefits derive from the affective qualities of these relationships, through the mechanisms of trust, empathy and sympathy. Yet the combination of i...

Global economic transactions such as foreign direct investment must extend over an institutional abyss between the jurisdiction, and therefore protection, of the states involved. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), whose members are states, represent an important attempt to span this abyss. IGOs are mandated variously to smooth economic transac...

This article investigates the configuration of cognition- and affect-based trust in man- agers' professional networks, examining how these two types of trust are associated with relational content and structure. Results indicate that cognition-based trust is positively associated with economic resource, task advice, and career guidance ties, wherea...

Competing organizations are often defined by their niche overlap or structural equivalence in resource dependence, but the very structure that defines competitors can also identify cooperators. There is a fine line between competition and cooperation, but current theories give insufficient guidance as to which will take place and also contribute to...

We used electronic name tags to conduct a fine-grained analysis of the pattern of socializing dynamics at a mixer attended by about 100 business people, to examine whether individuals in such minimally structured social events can initiate new and different contacts, despite the tendency to interact with those they already know or who are similar t...

This paper describes how organizational form can solve the problem of commitment that complicates exchange. I illustrate this by analyzing the commitment problem of hotel chains. Consideration of the commitment problem indicates that hotel chains are better off naming their units the same, so as to create the potential for future business from cust...

The authors identify a system of intercompetitor affiliation that helped Clyde River shipbuilding companies to thrive, but was ultimately undermined by the rise of corporate capitalism. They find that connections between companies through their leaders' family ties or friendships were common, and beneficial, as every such tie maintained by a compan...

Membership in certain intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), such as the World Trade Organization, has long been argued to stimulate trade. Yet, evidence linking IGOs to trade is mixed. The authors argue that identifying the influence of IGOs requires attention not only to the institutions IGOs enact, but also to the network through which they ena...

Competition between organizational forms manifests itself in political contention over the law. The authors analyze the political strength and organization of the groups that supported and opposed state anti-chain-store laws. The enactment of these laws depended on intrastate political activity and the interstate diffusion of anti-chain-store legis...

This paper analyzes the founding rates of two types of Jewish agricultural cooperatives, the moshav and the kibbutz, to show how political ideology intersects with resource requirements to produce competition and mutualism between organizations. These two populations, which share ideology and a resource base, competed with each other. They both enj...

The kibbutz, once lauded as an exemplar of the Utopian organization, has been criticized recently as yet another illustration that socialist arrangements are inferior to capitalist ones. In this paper, we test a number of explanations of what happened to the kibbutz, using an analysis of the founding rate of the kibbutz population. We find support...

When is a social actor most strongly influenced by its peers? This article addresses this question by clarifying when computer firms were most strongly affected by the choices of their structurally equiv-alent rivals to adopt a well-known technology: Intel's sixth-gener-ation processor. The core hypothesis is that the effect of adoptions by structu...

River Shipbuilding, 1711-1990. The social structures of industries are constituted by two types of connections, horizontal ties between producers, and vertical ties between producers and customers. Past empirical research, however, tells us little about the interdependence between horizontal and vertical ties or even whether one social form dominat...

Groups of organizations are pervasive, although there is little systematic knowledge about how they affect their members. We examine one dimension of the operation of organization groups, the transfer of experience. Our core argument is that organization groups may create benefits for their members, but problems for those outside the group. Within...

The behavioral theory of the firm rests on empirical observation of economic behavior in organizations, and was motivated by the 'disconnect' between that observation and prevailing economic theory. We believe that there is a comparable tension between reality and theory with regard to the persistent, systematic relationships between organizations....

The order of authorship was randomly determined. Yael Parag provided resourceful

Interorganizatonal relationships in general and chain relationships in particular are a critical channel for interorganizational learning. Learning may not only be a result of interorganizational relationships, however; it may also be a primary cause of them. We examine this idea in the empirical context of Manhattan hotels and their relationships...

The kibbutz is the equivalent of a laboratory for organization science. Its scope of activities, which includes agricultural and industrial production, the socialization and education of children, management of communal consumption, and national defense, is broader than any other organization. It therefore demonstrates the potential to extend organ...

Friendships with competitors can improve the performance of organizations through the mechanisms of enhanced collaboration, mitigated competition, and better information exchange. Moreover, these benefits are best achieved when competing managers are embedded in a cohesive network of friendships (i.e., one with many friendships among competitors),...

The variant of new institutionalism that is our focus is a pan-disciplinary theory that asserts that actors pursue their interests by making choices within institu-tional constraints. We organize our review of the theory around its behavioral assump-tions, the operation of institutional forms, and processes of institutional change. At each stage, w...

La finalité de notre article est de comprendre la nature et la diversité des relations intervenant dans le processus de diffusion interorganisationnelle des connaissances. Notre questionnement porte dans un premier temps sur la nature des dimensions de ces relations et dans un second temps sur leur diversité. L’intérêt est double : préciser et comp...

On the basis of a step-by-step procedure (see Hinkin, 1998), this article discusses the design and evaluation of a self-report questionnaire (Change Climate Questionnaire) that can be used to gauge the internal context of change, the process factors of change, and readiness for change. The authors describe four studies used to develop a psychometri...

We investigate the effect of community-wide political and ideological interests on the failure rate of Israeli workers' cooperatives. Political order may be provided by the state or through membership in a federation. Independently, both conditions should reduce organizational failure, but when they coexist, the influence of the state should domina...

Embedded ties between organizations facilitate vicarious learning by increasing the opportunity and motivation to share experience, and the capacity to communicate its meaning. They also form the basis of a moral economy within groups of tied organizations, where concrete resources are exchanged for compliance with other group interests. Our analys...

In this study, we examine how experience at the level of the organization, the population, and the related group affects the failure of Manhattan hotels. We find organizational experience has a U-shaped effect on failure; that organizations enjoy reduced failure as a function of population experience before their founding, but not after; and that r...

Multiunit, professionally managed organizations represent a substantial separation of ownership and control which brings a risk of shirking and stealing by employees. While owners might be expected to address this problem by monitoring, they have limited "entrepreneurial capacity," and therefore, their ability to operate a large organization is inh...

In this paper, we examine how conflicting ideologies affect organizational practice. We theorize that the basic relationship between ideology and organization is moderated by social pressures and economic incentives that result from differences between the organization and its environment on issues of ideology. Using data from Israeli kibbutzim for...

Organizational learning is central to a number of strategic theories. Recent arguments, however, identify risks associated with learning from own experience in the form of overattention to the short term and local conditions. The experience of the industry may offer opportunities for organizational learning that the experience of the organization d...

Organizational learning is central to a number of strategic theories. Recent arguments, however, identify risks associated with learning from own experience in the form of overattention to the short term and local conditions. The experience of the industry may offer opportunities for organizational learning that the experience of the organization d...

This study of chain affiliation in the Manhattan hotel industry examines the benefits and drawbacks of affiliation with a chain, which can be a source of operating knowledge and economies of scale for components but also a potential source of strategic constraint. Our analysis demonstrates the effects of chain affiliation on the failure of componen...

This paper examines institution building and the problems of collective action that must be overcome so that institutions can regulate the self-interested activity of organizations and facilitate the production or protection of resources that collectively benefit organizations. We show that the presence of competing groups of organizations is key t...

The current report shows that rule-enforcement policies that use moderate punishments can be surprisingly effective in achieving high compliance at reasonable enforcement costs. When the subjects of rules are rational, these policies can eliminate violations and reduce the costs of administering and suffering punishments. These policies are also ro...

ABSTRACT

The performance of organizations depends partly on the reputations of their industries. Such reputations are "intangible commons." Interest in protecting mutual welfare motivates members of an industry to engage in self-regulation. However, the current literature tends to have a pessimistic view of the efficacy of self-regulation in solving the pro...

We are grateful to a large number of coop managers, workers, and board members who have granted us interviews, provided original source materials, and allowed us to observe their meetings since 1998. We are also grateful to Daniel Beunza, Dana Fischer, Ray Horton, James Kitts, Chuck Tilly, and participants in the Contentious Politics seminar at Col...