Nick Kanas

• MD
• Professor Emeritus at University of California, San Francisco

Psychological issues are critical components of crewmember selection pre-launch, well-being during the mission, and readaptation to life on Earth after the return. As was mentioned in Chap. 1, the first human to fly into space was Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961. However, there was much interest in studying the behavioral reactions of individuals wo...

In previous chapters, we have dealt with issues affecting the individual astronaut. In this chapter, we will extend our vision to discuss issues involving groups of people that must function as a coherent team (e.g., space crews, Mission Control personnel). Especially important will be a number of issues that can produce team tension and loss of co...

This chapter deals with the stressors and stresses of space travel and issues related to sleep and cognition. Topics include stress and its measurement, stressors in space, effects of microgravity, psychophysiological stress, circadian rhythms, sleep, and cognition and performance.

The selection of space crewmembers can be a tricky activity. Not only is it important to find people without obvious psychological problems, but it also is important to select people capable of achieving the mission goals. Issues to be considered include professional background and training that are congruent with these goals, along with dedication...

We saw in the last chapter that preparing for an expedition to Mars is one of the goals of the Artemis program, along with reaching and settling the Moon. In addition, we learned in Chap. 7 that Elon Musk is developing his Super Heavy Rocket (a.k.a. BFR) to transport a hundred or so people within the huge Starship spacecraft to reach and colonize M...

The Moon is our closest neighbor in space, with an average distance from the Earth of 382,500 kilometers (about 238,000 miles). From 1969 to 1972, 12 American astronauts walked on the surface of the Moon during six missions as part of the Apollo Program. But once the United States had shown that it had won the space race with the Soviet Union, it l...

This Appendix containsverbatimtheintroductory quotationsandconclusionsof the various sections of the NASATechnical Memorandum I wrote with Bill Feddersen in 1971, which is cited in the chapter heading. Although this NASATechnical Memorandum is out of print, the interested reader can access a copy of this document on-line through the following URL:h...

Given the various stressors and stresses of on-orbit spaceflight previously discussed, the question arises as to what we can do about them. Certainly, appropriate crewmember selection is one way of preparing for the vicissitudes of a space mission, and this was considered in Chap. 4. In addition, relevant training before launch is critical to help...

The goal of commercial human spaceflight is to travel in space through privately-funded means. In 2021, several companies launched private citizens on suborbital or orbital missions whose trip was paid for by private money. These human activities followed a plethora of private launches of communications and other satellites that had been occurring...

Most astronauts have reported that their space mission was a positive experience. Some return with a new look on life or state they had a transcendental or religious experience [1, 2]. They may engage in volunteer work or start a foundation to help others. For example, after leaving NASA, Alan Bean became a professional artist, Edgar Mitchell found...

INTRODUCTION: In 1991, Bechtel and Berning proposed that a decrement in morale and well-being affects people working in isolated and confined environments during the third quarter of their mission. Studies conducted during such conditions have suggested that whereas some people may experience such a phenomenon, it is not a typical occurrence in spa...

It is rare to find constellation images in modern-day star maps. Sometimes lines are drawn connecting major stars to produce stick-figure representations of the constellations. In other cases, there are no representations, just boundary lines drawn around the area of the sky assigned to the constellations. These maps typically show stars and deep-s...

Since the earliest days of the Republic, people in the United States have been fascinated by events in the sky and have followed the paths of the Moon, planets, and stars. Although Europeans set the standard for celestial cartography, many of its elements took root in America during the period between the Revolutionary and Civil Wars. A number of b...

The four people highlighted in Chapter 6 were very important for their innovations and influences on others. Each made contributions that added to the accuracy of stellar location in the sky and included more stars in the process. Although visually attractive, their atlases were not necessarily the most beautiful of the Golden Age. In fact, in term...

The study of the structure and evolution of the universe belongs to the field of cosmology, as opposed to the description and representation of this structure, which is cosmography. Cosmographical images are depicted in many celestial charts, so it is important to have a sense of various cosmological systems. Since printed star maps are essentially...

Previously, we considered the indigenous constellation systems that developed in China, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India. Here, we will trace the development of European constellations, which form the basis of the star maps that will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Like many other things astronomical, we will begin with the ancient Greeks, whose...

In previous chapters we discussed the cosmologies and constellation developments of both non-European and European countries. We have considered ancient ways of mapping the heavens using such media as paintings on the walls and ceilings of temples, markings on oracle bones or clay tablets, and representations on unusual flat surfaces, such as papyr...

In this chapter we will discuss a number of special topics of relevance to celestial maps and prints. Some of these topics relate to objects that have been used in observing and mapping the heavens, such as celestial globes and gores, volvelles, and early astronomical instruments and telescopes. Other topics pertain to non-stellar bodies in the hea...

From 1600 to 1800, a number of beautiful star atlases were printed that depicted the constellations according to ancient myths and tales. In Europe, where the quality of celestial atlases was unmatched, classical Greek traditions prevailed, and the constellations were given allegorical visual representations that consisted of heroes and heroines, r...

The Golden Age of celestial cartography with constellation images took place in Europe, roughly from 1600 to 1800. During this period, grand sky atlases were produced that attempted to accurately place the stars and planets in the heavens in coordinate systems that paralleled those on Earth. These were influenced by increasingly more accurate place...

Two cosmological models predominated in early European astronomy: the geocentric model, which placed the Earth in the center of the universe, and the heliocentric model, which placed the Sun in the center. Along the way there have been hybrids, but in all cases either our planet or our Sun has been in the center (or close to the center) of everythi...

The objective of this chapter is twofold: (a) to review the current knowledge of cultural, psychological, psychiatric, cognitive, interpersonal, and organizational issues that are relevant to the behavior and performance of astronaut crews and ground support personnel and (b) to make recommendations for future human space missions, including both t...

a b s t r a c t Recently the psychological effects of space flight have gained in attention. In uncovering the psychological challenges that individuals and teams can face, we need research options that integrate psychosocial aspects with behavioral, performance, technical and environmental issues. Future perspectives in Space Psychology and Human...

Recently the psychological effects of space flight have gained in attention. In uncovering the psychological challenges that individuals and teams can face, we need research options that integrate psychosocial aspects with behavioral, performance, technical and environmental issues. Future perspectives in Space Psychology and Human Spaceflight are...

Since the earliest days of the Republic, people in the United States have been fascinated by events in the sky and have followed the paths of the Moon, planets, and stars. Although Europeans set the standard for celestial cartography, many of its elements took root in America during the period between the Revolutionary and Civil Wars. A number of b...

It is rare to find constellation images in modern-day star atlases. Sometimes, lines are drawn connecting major stars to produce stick-figure representations of the constellations. In other cases, there are no representations, just boundary lines drawn around the area of the sky assigned to the constellation. Practically, such atlases are much more...

The four people highlighted in Chapter 6 were very important for their innovations and influences on others. Each made contributions that added to the accuracy of stellar location in the sky and included more stars in the process. Although attractive visually, their atlases were not necessarily the most beautiful of the Golden Age. In fact, in term...

Previously, we considered the native constellation systems that developed in China, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India. Here, we will trace the development of European constellations, which form the basis of the star maps we will consider in subsequent chapters. Like many other things astronomical, we will begin with the ancient Greeks, whose classical...

Crewmembers participating in long-duration space expeditions beyond the Earth–Moon environment will have more autonomy than in previous on-orbit missions or missions to the Moon. In order to study the impact of high versus low crew autonomy on crewmembers and mission control personnel we studied 6 men who were isolated for 105 days in a Mars missio...

Current planning for the first interplanetary expedition to Mars envisions a crew of 6 or 7 people and a mission duration of around 2.5 years. However, this time frame is much less than that expected on expeditions to the outer solar system, where total mission durations of 10 years or more are likely. Although future technological breakthroughs in...

Given the long distances involved and the kinds of activities planned, crewmembers participating in long-duration exploratory space missions such as an expedition to Mars will have more autonomy than in previous space missions. In order to study the impact of high versus low crew autonomy on crewmembers and the crew–mission control interaction, we...

Cultural differences among crewmembers and mission control personnel can affect long-duration space missions. We examine three cultural contrasts: national (American vs. Russian); occupational (crewmembers vs. mission control personnel); and organizational [Mir space station vs. International Space Station (ISS)]. The Mir sample included 5 American...

The analysis of space crew's communication with mission control (MC) is the standard operational procedure of the psychological support group in the Institute for Biomedical problems, Russia. For more than 20 years it is used for the monitoring of the behavioral health of Russian crewmembers in space. We apply quantitative speech content analysis t...

1st edition: Winner of the 2004 IAA Life Sciences Book Award! This 2nd Edition represents a complete revision with about 23% more pages and new material compared to the first edition; it includes several recent studies involving astronauts and cosmonauts; and discusses the new field of space tourism. It deals with psychological, psychiatric, and p...

Based on our previous studies of astronauts and cosmonauts, we hypothesized that the patterning of mood states among. International Space Station (ISS) crewmembers would vary by culture, regardless of the overall frequency of these states in each cultural group. Russian clinicians recognize a pattern of distress known as asthenia. According to the...

Reports from astronauts and cosmonauts, studies from space analogue environments on Earth, and our previous research on the Mir Space Station have identified a number of psychosocial issues that can lead to problems during long-duration space missions. Three of these issues (time effects, displacement, leader role) were studied during a series of l...

The International Space Station (ISS) is operated by a multi-national, multi-organizational team that is dispersed across multiple locations, time zones, and work schedules. At NASA, mission control personnel have had to find ways to address the leadership challenges inherent in such work, but have not had systematic training on how to do so. We in...

Based on anecdotal reports from astronauts and cosmonauts, studies of space analog environments on Earth, and our previous research on the Mir Space Station, a number of psychosocial issues have been identified that can lead to problems during long-duration space expeditions. Several of these issues were studied during a series of missions to the I...

Individuals who adapt positively to an inhospitable or extreme environment can derive benefit from their experiences. This positive effect may include an initial improvement in mental health as someone adjusts to the environment (adaptation) as well as more sustained personal growth during the mission (salutogenesis). We review relevant findings fr...

The Golden Age of pictorial celestial cartography took place in Europe, roughly from 1600 to 1800. During this period, grand sky atlases were produced that attempted to accurately place the stars and planets in the heavens in coordinate systems that paralleled those on Earth. These were influenced from increasingly more accurate placement that resu...

From 1600 to 1800, a number of beautiful star atlases were printed that depicted the constellations according to ancient myths and tales. In Europe, where the quality of celestial atlases was unmatched, classical Greek traditions prevailed, and the constellations were given allegorical visual representations that consisted of heroes and heroines, r...

In previous chapters we discussed the cosmologies and constellation developments of both non-European and European countries. We have considered ancient ways of mapping the heavens using such media as paintings on the walls and ceilings of temples, markings on oracle bones or clay tablets, and representations on unusual flat surfaces, such as papyr...

This paper compares findings from two NASA-funded studies of international long-duration missions to the Mir space station (Shuttle/Mir) and to the International Space Station (ISS). American and Russian crewmembers and mission control personnel participated. Issues examined included changes in mood and group social climate over time, displacement...

Anecdotes from astronauts and cosmonauts suggest that spaceflight can be an enriching experience with enduring positive effects. These positive mental health effects may help protect flight crews from the psychological stress inherent in such high-risk missions. The goal of this study was to identify areas of personal growth likely to result from t...

PURPOSE Cultural differences among crewmembers can jeopardize the safety and success of long-duration space station missions Differences between crewmembers and mission control personnel can strain the working relationship between these groups as well Our team has completed two large NASA-funded studies involving missions to the Mir and Internation...

PURPOSE Psychosocial issues affecting people working in isolated and confined environments such as spacecraft can jeopardize mental health and mission safety Our team has completed two large NASA-funded studies involving missions to the Mir and International Space Stations where crewmembers were on-orbit for four to seven months Combining these two...

The International Space Station (ISS) requires a global degree of cooperation that is unprecedented in human space flight. Cultural and language issues may affect this type of teamwork. As part of a larger study of mood and social climate among ISS personnel, we collected data on their cultural and language background. The sample of 132 included 8...

A formal response to humans' curiosity about the world, science is propelled by the passions and abilities of individuals -- such as General O. M. Mitchel -- who are driven "to know."

Conducting psychosocial research on the International Space Station (ISS) requires rigorous privacy precautions that exceed standard scientific human subject protocols. In our previous study involving crewmembers on Mir, and in our ongoing ISS work, special precautions were taken during each phase of the missions. Pre-flight, participants received...

Being in space is a powerful experience that can have an enduring, positive impact on the psychological well-being of astronauts and cosmonauts. We sought to examine the frequency, intensity and distribution of such salutogenic experiences among persons who have flown in space, using a questionnaire we developed based on the scientific literature a...

Anecdotal reports from space and results from space analogue experiments on Earth have suggested a number of interpersonal issues that may negatively affect crewmember performance and well-being. We examined some of these issues in a questionnaire survey of 54 astronauts and cosmonauts who had flown in space and in a 135-d Mir Space Station simulat...

In isolated and confined environments, two important leadership roles have been identified: the task/instrumental role (which focuses on work goals and operational needs), and the supportive/expressive role (which focuses on morale goals and emotional needs). On the International Space Station, the mission commander should be familiar with both of...

Long before our age of sky-simulation software and desktop planetaria, observers of the heavens used analog computers made of paper.

An expeditionary mission to Mars will expose the crewmembers to unique psychological and interpersonal issues that may negatively impact on mission goals and crew safety. As opposed to an Antarctic winter-over, an orbital space station mission, or a trip to the moon, an expedition to Mars is fraught with unique Stressors that can impact on crewmemb...

Previous anecdotal reports from space and results from space simulation studies on Earth have suggested that the group interactions of crewmembers during space missions can be problematic in ways that can negatively affect crew safety and the accomplishment of mission goals. To assess the interpersonal environment of space crewmembers, we used a se...

Based on anecdotal reports from space and studies of space analog environments on Earth, a number of psychosocial and psychiatric issues have been identified that can lead to problems in space. We studied several of these issues during a series of Shuttle/Mir missions. We found support for decrements in commander support during the 2nd half of the...

Based on anecdotal reports from space and studies of space analog environments on Earth, a number of psychosocial and psychiatric issues have been identified that can lead to problems in space. We studied several of these issues during a series of Shuttle/Mir missions. We found support for decrements in commander support during the 2nd half of the...

During future long-duration space missions, countermeasures need to be developed to deal with psychosocial issues that might impact negatively on crewmember performance and well-being. In our recently completed NASA-funded study of 5 U.S. astronauts, 8 Russian cosmonauts, and 42 U.S. and 16 Russian mission control personnel who participated in the...

During International Space Station (ISS) missions, international crewmembers will be engaged in complicated activities over long periods of time. A number of interpersonal issues likely to impact on these missions must be addressed in order to ensure healthy crewmember interactions and optimal performance. A review of the literature of space analog...

Background: Anecdotal reports from space and results from simulation studies on Earth have suggested that space crewmembers may experience decrements in their interpersonal environment over time and may displace tension and dysphoria to mission control personnel. Methods: To evaluate these issues, we studied 5 American astronauts, 8 Russian cosm...

To improve the interpersonal climate of crewmembers involved with long-duration space missions, it is important to understand the factors affecting their interactions with each other and with members of mission control. This paper will present findings from a recently completed NASA-funded study during the Shuttle/Mir program which evaluated in-gro...

A number of interpersonal issues relevant to manned space missions have been identified from the literature. These include crew tension, cohesion, leadership, language and cultural factors, and displacement. Ground-based studies by others and us have clarified some of the parameters of these issues and have indicated ways in which they could be stu...

Although the literature suggests that homogeneous therapy groups are useful for bipolar outpatients, little is known about the process in such groups. Using the GCQ-S and a content analysis of discussion topics, we evaluated group process during the first 31 sessions of an outpatient bipolar group. Compared with normative samples, our group scored...

Process and content were studied in four 16-session segments of a psychodynamically oriented therapy group for Vietnam veterans suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). On the Group Climate Questionnaire (GCQ-S), the group scored significantly higher in the Engaged dimension and significantly lower in the Avoiding and Conflict dimension...

Reviews the history of Soviet psychiatry, beginning in 1862 with the first Russian psychiatric society and followed by the founding of the Bekhterev Institute in 1907. Psychiatric abuse began with the advent of Stalinism in the early 1930s. Recently, much has been written about Soviet psychiatry, especially in terms of human rights violations and t...

The author traces the development of group therapy in the Soviet Union based on a review of the literature and his experiences in Leningrad as a Faculty Exchange Scholar. Although early approaches used hypnotherapy and educational techniques, the Bolshevik revolution introduced the concept of the collective, which subsequently influenced group ther...

In order to test the robustness of our model for treating schizophrenic patients in group therapy, we replicated our previous study of an inpatient schizophrenic group and also explored process in an outpatient schizophrenic group using the Hill Interaction Matrix (HIM-G). In agreement with the prior study, the results showed the groups to have a u...

Schizophrenia is a mental condition characterized by a disorder in thinking. Thought content frequently is disturbed and leads to psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations (hearing voices or seeing things that are not there) and delusions (beliefs that are not supported by reality). The thought process also is affected, leading to looseness in asso...

Approche de therapie de groupe breve pour des patients schizophrenes non-internes (des veterans). Une amelioration des relations avec les autres et une meilleure adaptation aux experiences psychotiques sont escomptees (evaluation par questionnaires, intervalle de 4 mois)