Nathan Ida

• Ph.D
• Professor (Full) at University of Akron

This handbook, now as second edition, continues to comprehensively cover the cutting-edge trends and techniques essential for the integration of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) into the changing face of the modern industrial landscape. In particular, it delves into the marriage of NDE with new techniques in e.g. data mining and management, cloud co...

Cyber technologies are offering new horizons for quality monitoring and control in manufacturing and safety assurance of physical assets in service. The line between nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and Industry 4.0 is getting blurred since both are sensory data-driven domains. This multidisciplinary approach has led to the emergence of a new capabi...

Cyber technologies are offering new horizons for quality monitoring and control in manufacturing and safety assurance of physical assets in service. The line between nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and Industry 4.0 is getting blurred since both are sensory data-driven domains. This multidisciplinary approach has led to the emergence of a new capabi...

In the digital transformation of industry “Industry 4.0,” “Smart Factory,” “Digital Twins,” “Artificial Intelligence,” and “Internet of Things” are all terms used to indicate a transition toward a smart, networked, and autonomous industrial ecosystem. We are in a quickly evolving industrial revolution that is made possible by the increasing number...

“Industry 4.0” stands for the fourth industrial revolution, the transition from production by computer controlled isolated machines to the concept of a smart factory, where machines, materials, and personnel are digitally connected, to actively adapt to changes in workflow. It emerges from the confluence of operational technologies (OT) and informa...

This handbook comprehensively covers the cutting-edge trends and techniques essential for the integration of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) into the changing face of the modern industrial landscape. In particular, it delves into the marriage of NDE with new techniques in e.g. data mining, cloud computing and autonomous operation, highlighting the...

Cyber technologies are offering new horizons for quality control in manufacturing and safety assurance of physical assets in service. The line between non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and Industry 4.0 is getting blurred since both are sensory data-driven domains. This multidisciplinary approach has led to the emergence of a new capability: NDE 4.0....

Cyber technologies are offering new horizons for quality control in manufacturing and safety assurance of physical assets in service. The line between non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and Industry 4.0 is getting blurred since both are sensory data-driven domains. This multidisciplinary approach has led to the emergence of a new capability: NDE 4.0....

This handbook comprehensively covers the cutting-edge trends and techniques essential for the integration of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) into the changing face of the modern industrial landscape. In particular, it delves into the marriage of NDE with new techniques in e.g. data mining, cloud computing and autonomous operation, highlighting the...

In the context of NDE and in particular NDE 4.0, a historical perspective is needed to understand why and how we got here and, in fact, what NDE 4.0 is all about. There are different ways to describe or define NDE 4.0 but the one adopted in this work, that is, that NDE 4.0 is a “Cyber-physical Non-destructive Evaluation System,” is most revealing:...

Cyber technologies are offering new horizons for quality control in manufacturing and safety assurance of physical assets in service. The line between non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and Industry 4.0 is getting blurred since both are sensory data-driven domains. This multidisciplinary approach has led to the emergence of a new capability: NDE 4.0....

In the previous two chapters, we discussed in some detail the mathematics of electromagnetics: vector algebra and vector calculus. We are now ready to start looking into the physical phenomena of electromagnetics. It will be useful to keep this in mind: The study of electromagnetics is the study of natural phenomena. There are two reasons why it is...

The relations and methods introduced in Chaps. 3 and 4 dealt primarily with point and distributed charges and the electric fields they produce. If the charges were known, the electric field and potential could be determined. However, many practical situations exist in which the charges are either unknown or are distributed in a complex fashion. The...

Chapter 14 discussed the propagation properties of transmission lines with particular emphasis on impedance, the reflection coefficient, and time-harmonic representation. Voltage and current were phasors, and a number of properties such as the speed of propagation, wavelength, and phase and attenuation constants were used as a direct consequence of...

After discussing wave propagation, it is time we go back and discuss the sources of the waves. Recall that our whole discussion of waves was based on the solution to the source-free wave equation. Starting with Chapter 11, we assumed that a wave was generated in some fashion but did not concern ourselves too much with how the wave was generated. Oc...

In Chapter 5, we discussed analytic methods of solution for electrostatic problems. The most outstanding feature of these methods was that the solution was exact and in the form of a mathematical relation. On the other hand, only certain classes of problems could be solved. In the case of the method of images, the question was one of finding the co...

Hopefully, by now you have a good understanding of waves propagating in space and in materials, including reflection and transmission at interfaces. Although not mentioned often enough, there were a number of assumptions implicit in this type of propagation. The most important was the fact that only plane waves were treated. In most cases, we also...

After summarizing Maxwell’s equations in Chapter 11, we are now ready to discuss their implications. In particular, we will deal directly or indirectly with the displacement current term in Maxwell’s equations.

Vector algebra is the algebra of vectors: a set of mathematical rules that allows meaningful and useful operations in the study of electromagnetics. We will define vectors and the necessary operations shortly, but, for now, it is useful to remember the following axiom which will be followed throughout this book: Nothing will be defined, no quantity...

In the previous chapters, we found it useful to treat the electric and magnetic phenomena separately. In Chaps. 4–7, we treated electrostatic fields by relying on the two postulates:∇×E=0and∇⋅D=ρor∮CE⋅dl=0and∮sD⋅ds=QIn Chaps. 8 and 9, some of the basic magnetic phenomena were introduced, now relying on the following two postulates:∇×H=Jand∇⋅B=0or∮C...

Much of the discussion in the previous three chapters centered around lossless transmission lines. For these lines, the various relations were independent of conductivity of the materials involved. In fact, even for a distortionless transmission line, although an attenuation constant was present, all other basic properties of the line were independ...

The propagation of waves in free space and in materials was discussed at some length in Chapter 12. In this chapter, we discuss properties of waves as they propagate through different materials and changes in their amplitudes and directions as they propagate through the interfaces between materials. This aspect of the propagation of waves is fundam...

The above reference to lodestone is interesting in that it is over 2000 years old. The property of the magnetic field to attract or generate a force is universally known and is used in practical devices, probably more than most of us realize. How many applications of the permanent magnet do you recall? Did you know, for example, that many electric...

After discussing the static electric field and steady currents, we are now ready to take another significant step in the study of electromagnetics, the study of the static magnetic field. But what exactly is a magnetic field? This question will be answered gradually, but, for a simple description, we may say it is a new type of force field in the s...

Most students in engineering and science have heard the term “Maxwell’s equations,” and some may also have heard that Maxwell’s equations “describe all electromagnetic phenomena.” However, it is not always clear what exactly do we mean by these equations. How are they any different from what we have studied in the previous chapters? We recall discu...

Vector calculus deals with the application of calculus operations on vectors. We will often need to evaluate integrals, derivatives, and other operations that use integrals and derivatives. The rules needed for these evaluations constitute vector calculus. In particular, line, volume, and surface integration are important, as are directional deriva...

In the previous four chapters, we discussed the electrostatic field and its applications. The only reference to time was in the fact that whenever charges are placed in a conductor, they move until a steady state charge distribution is obtained. However, no attempt was made to characterize their motion or any effects this might have on fields.

The fundamentals of electrostatics were given in Chapter 3 as the definition of force through Coulomb’s law and of the electric field intensity. In this chapter, we address two issues: one is to formalize some of the results obtained in the previous chapter and the second is to expand on the ideas of electric field intensity, electric flux density,...

A look back at much of what we did with transmission lines reveals that perhaps the dominant feature in all our calculations is the use of the reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient was used to find the conditions on the line, to calculate the line impedance, and to calculate the standing wave ratio. Voltage, current, and power were all...

RF-EMF exposure assessment carried out in an observatory open for general public visits, where there are multiple RF sources in the surrounding area. Fields at some points of interest have exceeded the ICNIRP exposure limits for the general public and, to comply with normative limits, relevant stations reduced their radiated power. Nevertheless, th...

Electromagnetic scattering problems that involve far-field radiation patterns and the calculations of total currents induced in a perfect conductor can be solved using local radiation boundary conditions. These local conditions are often imposed on a domain enclosing the scatterer and the typical finite element methods are incorporated so that the...

The detection of metal edges is a common problem in manufacturing of metal products including strips and tapes, as well as in alignment of metal sheets for assembly of products. The detection may be as simple as detecting the position of the edge—either qualitatively, that is, the very existence of a metal edge or may be highly quantitative, whereb...

Microwave nondestructive testing and the sensors required to affect the testing are less well known than other electromagnetic methods such as eddy currents techniques. Nevertheless, they occupy a critical role in testing as well as imaging of conditions and flaws in primarily nonmetallic structures including plastics, polymers, and ceramics as wel...

Composite materials have diverse engineering applications including the automotive, energy and aerospace industries. In manufacturing aircraft structures, the material is expected to endure atmospheric discharges. The present paper aims to model some of the effects of lightning strikes on a composite materials modeled through numerical simulation....

The present paper aims to model some of the effects of lightning strikes on a composite material modeled through numerical simulation. The simulation is based on the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method which allows the analysis of the electromagnetic and thermal effects related to the problem. The thermal distribution is evaluated based on...

An antenna can be considered as a two-port transducer system characterized by a transfer function that can be frequency-dependent and may have a non-linear phase response. The performance of this complex device is critical for time or frequency-domain ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems. We recently published a framework for GPR antenna design a...

Eddy-current testing is an important nondestructive testing method in defect detection and evaluation of conductive materials. In testing of moving multilayer conductive plates, a rectangular exciting coil is placed perpendicular to the conductor, and cylindrical or rectangular coils are positioned below the exciting coil serving as pick-up coils....

Sensors and actuators are the basis of almost all electrical systems, especially if one views them as generalized inputs and outputs. But the approach to teaching them has been ad hoc, based almost entirely on an encyclopedic enumeration of their properties and applications. This approach is also evident in textbooks available. They are either spec...

A flame temperature sensor based on using silicon nitride (SN) hot surface igniters (HSI) used as a dual-purpose sensor for both ignition and temperature measurement has been designed to measure the fuel-air equivalence ratio of premixed combustion systems. Equivalence ratio of premixed combustion systems provides a measure of efficiency of the sys...

This handbook is a comprehensive source of information on all aspects of non-destructive testing (NDT), for use by professionals, educators, and most of all, by the practitioners of testing. The art of NDT consists of dozens of methods, some classical, and some emerging. As the pace of industrial work and discovery intensifies and materials are uti...

Ground Penetrating Radar is a multidisciplinary Nondestructive Evaluation technique that requires knowledge of electromagnetic wave propagation, material properties and antenna theory. Under some circumstances this tool may require auxiliary algorithms to improve the interpretation of the collected data. Detection, location and definition of target...

—Ground Penetrating Radar is a complex nondestructive evaluation technique where the antenna is the most critical part. The antenna is responsible for transmission and reception of waves at the proper level and frequencies defined in the GPR system specifications. Important GPR features such as resolution and penetration depth depend on its charact...

There is a need for a low-cost sensor to be used in many practical applications, such as the control of the air–fuel ratio in combustion burners, which measures the mass flow rate of fluid. This paper focuses on the design, calibration, and testing of a mass flow sensor operating on the principle of thermal dispersion. The developed sensor implemen...

Purpose The purpose of this paper is the derivation and efficient implementation of surface impedance boundary conditions (SIBCs) for nonlinear magnetic conductors. Design/methodology/approach An approach based on perturbation theory is proposed, which expands to nonlinear problems the methods already developed by the authors for linear problems....

This handbook is a comprehensive source of information on all aspects of non-destructive testing (NDT), for use by professionals, educators, and most of all, by the practitioners of testing. The art of NDT consists of dozens of methods, some classical, and some emerging. As the pace of industrial work and discovery intensifies and materials are uti...

A multi-element arbitrary polynomial chaos (ME-aPC) scheme is introduced for uncertainty quantification (UQ) in sensors. Similarly to the classical arbitrary polynomial chaos (aPC), the ME-aPC scheme is most usable in data-driven applications, in which the input uncertainty is represented numerically by raw data samples. In sensors, the input sampl...

A non-intrusive arbitrary polynomial chaos (APC) method is applied to a problem of a band-stop filter with geometrical imperfections. The construction of APC scheme only requires to evaluate a finite number of moments, and does not involve assigning analytical probability density functions for the uncertain parameters of a stochastic model. Therefo...

A polarization insensitive metamaterial absorber is proposed consisting of a dielectric layer sandwiched between two tilted parallel metallic strips and a ground plane. First, a new analytical model is introduced to predict the resonance frequency for square, rectangular and wire geometries which shows less relative errors in comparison with previo...

Electromagnetic NDT methods and in particular eddy currents play an important role in nondestructive testing of conducting materials. In testing conductive structures, rectangular coils are often more useful than circular coils. A particular configuration consists of two rectangular coils located above the conductive plates, one placed parallel to...

A perturbation approach is used to derive surface impedance boundary conditions (SIBCs) for nonlinear magnetic conductors described by means of Brauer's model [1]. A new technique is proposed to solve the nonlinear diffusion equation of the magnetic field in conductive media and then its solution is coupled with a BEM formulation for the case of pa...

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop a method of balancing an AC bridge with minimum computation time. The applications envisioned are in power system monitoring and sensing Design/methodology/approach – The method is based on a recursive algorithm, first matching the phase followed by that of amplitude. Each phase step requires thr...

Model Order Reduction (MOR) methods enable reduction of the computation time when dealing with parametrized numerical models. Among these methods, the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) method seems to be a good candidate because of its simplicity and its accuracy. In the literature, the offline/online approach is generally applied but is not al...

The electromagnetic NDT method plays an important role in a nondestructive material test. In testing conductive structures, the rectangular coil is more useful than a circular coil due to its asymmetric characteristic. One rectangular coil places above and parallel to the moving conductive plate with metal coating, serving as exciting and sensing c...

Fusing currents in composite cables are calculated by coupling the non-linear heat equation with the calculation of the joules heating in a non-linear finite element process that includes conduction and radiation effects. The method is verified using analytical formulas available for simple copper cables. The method is useful in multi-material comp...

After discussing the static electric field and steady currents, we are now ready to take another significant step in the study of electromagnetics, the study of the static magnetic field. But what exactly is a magnetic field? This question will be answered gradually, but, for a simple description, we may say it is a new type of force field in the s...

Chapter 14 discussed the propagation properties of transmission lines with particular emphasis on impedance, the reflection coefficient, and time-harmonic representation. Voltage and current were phasors, and a number of properties such as the speed of propagation, wavelength, and phase and attenuation constants were used as a direct consequence of...

Much of the discussion in the previous three chapters centered around lossless transmission lines. For these lines, the various relations were independent of conductivity of the materials involved. In fact, even for a distortionless transmission line, although an attenuation constant was present, all other basic properties of the line were independ...

Most students in engineering and science have heard the term “Maxwell’s equations,” and some may also have heard that Maxwell’s equations “describe all electromagnetic phenomena.” However, it is not always clear what exactly do we mean by these equations. How are they any different from what we have studied in the previous chapters? We recall discu...

After discussing wave propagation, it is time we go back and discuss the sources of the waves. Recall that our whole discussion of waves was based on the solution to the source-free wave equation. Starting with Chapter 11, we assumed that a wave was generated in some fashion but did not concern ourselves too much with how the wave was generated. Oc...

Vector algebra is the algebra of vectors: a set of mathematical rules that allows meaningful and useful operations in the study of electromagnetics. We will define vectors and the necessary operations shortly, but, for now, it is useful to remember the following axiom which will be followed throughout this book: Nothing will be defined, no quantity...

In the previous two chapters, we discussed in some detail the mathematics of electromagnetics: vector algebra and vector calculus. We are now ready to start looking into the physical phenomena of electromagnetics. It will be useful to keep this in mind: The study of electromagnetics is the study of natural phenomena. There are two reasons why it is...

The above reference to lodestone is interesting in that it is over 2000 years old. The property of the magnetic field to attract or generate a force is universally known and is used in practical devices, probably more than most of us realize. How many applications of the permanent magnet do you recall? Did you know, for example, that many electric...

The propagation of waves in free space and in materials was discussed at some length in Chapter 12. In this chapter, we discuss properties of waves as they propagate through different materials and changes in their amplitudes and directions as they propagate through the interfaces between materials. This aspect of the propagation of waves is fundam...

Vector calculus deals with the application of calculus operations on vectors. We will often need to evaluate integrals, derivatives, and other operations that use integrals and derivatives. The rules needed for these evaluations constitute vector calculus. In particular, line, volume, and surface integration are important, as are directional deriva...

Hopefully, by now you have a good understanding of waves propagating in space and in materials, including reflection and transmission at interfaces. Although not mentioned often enough, there were a number of assumptions implicit in this type of propagation. The most important was the fact that only plane waves were treated. In most cases, we also...

In Chapter 5, we discussed analytic methods of solution for electrostatic problems. The most outstanding feature of these methods was that the solution was exact and in the form of a mathematical relation. On the other hand, only certain classes of problems could be solved. In the case of the method of images, the question was one of finding the co...

In the previous four chapters, we discussed the electrostatic field and its applications. The only reference to time was in the fact that whenever charges are placed in a conductor, they move until a steady state charge distribution is obtained. However, no attempt was made to characterize their motion or any effects this might have on fields.

The fundamentals of electrostatics were given in Chapter 3 as the definition of force through Coulomb’s law and of the electric field intensity. In this chapter, we address two issues: one is to formalize some of the results obtained in the previous chapter and the second is to expand on the ideas of electric field intensity, electric flux density,...

A look back at much of what we did with transmission lines reveals that perhaps the dominant feature in all our calculations is the use of the reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient was used to find the conditions on the line, to calculate the line impedance, and to calculate the standing wave ratio. Voltage, current, and power were all...

The relations and methods introduced in Chaps. 3 and 4 dealt primarily with point and distributed charges and the electric fields they produce. If the charges were known, the electric field and potential could be determined. However, many practical situations exist in which the charges are either unknown or are distributed in a complex fashion. The...

After summarizing Maxwell’s equations in Chapter 11, we are now ready to discuss their implications. In particular, we will deal directly or indirectly with the displacement current term in Maxwell’s equations.

In the previous chapters, we found it useful to treat the electric and magnetic phenomena separately. In Chaps. 4–7, we treated electrostatic fields by relying on the two postulates:$$ \left(\nabla \times \mathbf{E}=0\kern0.6em \mathrm{and}\kern0.6em \nabla \cdot \mathbf{D}=\rho \right)\kern0.6em \mathrm{or}\kern0.6em \left({\displaystyle {\oint}_C...

Eddy current nondestructive testing (EC NDT) has been used in industry for almost 100 years and in the nuclear power generation industry for over 30 years with mixed results. Whereas the method is robust, it has been plagued by problems of accurate interpretation of results. Computational electromagnetic methods have in the past provided some guida...

An on-surface radiation boundary condition (OSRBC) procedure in the time domain is presented. The method extends well-known OSRBCs originally developed for high frequencies (short-time transients) to low frequencies or long-time transients in the time-domain. Starting with asymptotic approximations, we use an operator that is uniformly valid in tim...

Commercial electromagnetic analysis software can be used for optimal shape design with continuum design sensitivity analysis method since the continuum approach is a nonintrusive method. To simulate the externally forced magnetic field, two types of conditions - constant flux and constant current - are usually used. To demonstrate that the constant...

This paper gives an interpretation of the meaning of the adjoint system and its variable, that are introduced in the process of shape optimal design of electro-magnetic systems with sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity formulas for the discrete and continuum approach are compared and the meaning of the adjoint system is discussed. The adjoint system s...

As sensors and actuators are normally not (and have not been) treated in academic curricula as a subject in its own right; many students and current professionals often find themselves limited in their knowledge and dealing with topics and issues based on material they may have never encountered. Until now. This book brings sensors, actuators and i...

The noncontact torque sensing in machine shafts is addressed based on the stress induced in a press-fitted magnetoelastic sleeve on the shaft and eddy current sensing of the changes of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability due to the presence of stress. The eddy current probe uses dual drive, dual sensing coils whose purpose is increase...

Sensors and actuators are the basis of almost all electrical systems, especially if one views them as generalized inputs and outputs. But the approach to teaching them has been ad-hoc, based almost entirely on an encyclopedic enumeration of their properties and applications. This approach is also evident in textbooks available. They are either spec...

Surface impedance boundary conditions (SIBCs) have been successfully used for over 70 years in both analytical and numerical computation. With the need to model increasingly complex geometries and smaller artifacts, its importance in computer-aided design of electromagnetic devices has become prominent. High frequency SIBCs have been particularly s...

The modeling of corrosion poses particular difficulties. The understanding of corrosion as an electrochemical process has led to simple capacitive-resistive models that take into account the resistance of the electrolytic cell and the capacitive effect of the surface potential at the interface between conductors and the electrolyte. In some models...

The objective of this work is the calculation of forces and torque for a new type of motor, the harmonic motor, intended specifically for operation of brakes in vehicles. The motor offers the promise of eliminating a number of design limitations of existing electromechanical actuator systems. First, the motor eliminates the need for a gear set. Thi...

Most magnetic pendulums are driven at the bottom of the pendulum arm as they cross through the lowest point of their swing. The present design had to be driven close to the anchor point of the arm because of operational constraints. With a mass up to 12 kg, the actuator was required to increase the swing gradually until the arm reached a maximum ±1...

Surface impedance boundary conditions (SIBCs) of high order of approxi-mations basd on the Rytov method are introduced and implemented in the A-φ finite element formulation. With first order elements, only first and second order approxima-tions for the surface impedance are possible. Third order SIBCs require second order (or higher) finite element...

The solution of stochastic partial differential equations (PDEs) using the spectral stochastic finite-element method (SSFEM) can lead to a very large linear system of equations. If the random input data are independent, it can be shown that the initial linear system can be split into smaller independent linear systems by using double orthogonal pol...