Nahum Kipnis

• PhD
• Independent Researcher

This paper is the first part of a three-part project 'How the principle of energy conservation evolved between 1842 and 1870: the view of a participant'. This paper aims at showing how the new ideas of Mayer and Joule were received, what constituted the new theory in the period under study, and how it was supported experimentally. A connection was...

Analogy in science knew its successes and failures, as illustrated by examples from the eighteenth-century physics. At times, some scientists abstained from using a certain analogy on the ground that it had not yet been demonstrated. Several false discoveries in the 18th and early 19th centuries appeared to support their caution. It is now clear th...

This paper analyses the real origin and nature of scientific errors against claims of science critics, by examining a number of examples from the history of electricity and optics. This analysis leads to a conclusion that errors are a natural and unavoidable part of scientific process. If made available to students, through their science teachers,...

A proper presentation of scientific discoveries may allow science teachers to eliminate certain myths about the nature of science, which originate from an uncertainty among scholars about what constitutes a discovery. It is shown that a disagreement on this matter originates from a confusion of the act of discovery with response to it. It is sugges...

Difficulties in learning Ohm’s Law suggest a need to refocus it from the law for a part of the circuit to the law for the whole circuit. Such a revision may improve understanding of Ohm’s Law and its practical applications. This suggestion comes from an analysis of the history of the law’s discovery and its teaching. The historical materials this p...

Ignoring the role of chance in science distorts the nature of the scientific process. Teachers can address this issue by means of several in-depth historical case studies, such as the discovery of electromagnetism by Oersted. Oersted was led to his lecture experiment by logic (two new hypotheses), but its success from the first trial was largely du...

To describe a theory change scholars use the terms ‘refutation’ and ‘rejection’, with a presumption that a theory is 'rejected' after being 'refuted'. An evaluation of this process depends on through which eyes it had been viewed: scientists, textbook writers, or general public. This paper analyses the process of 'rejection'' from the perspective o...

Using an analogy in science may be problematic, as illustrated by an example from the history of electricity. While discussing a possible analogy between electricity and magnetism some scientists applied this analogy to various phenomena without questioning its truth. The majority, however, insisted that the analogy has to be explicitly demonstrate...

My interest in teaching the nature of science came from attempts to integrate history into physics courses for teachers at the Bakken Library and Museum beginning in 1985. My background in the history of science and in teaching physics appeared ideal for helping teachers transform the science of facts and equations they typically teach into science...

The notion of "discovery of electron" is a modern device to conceptualize certain events in physics at the turn of the century. Presumably, this term means the " establishment of a concept of a negatively charged particle, which is both a part of any atom and a carrier of electricity in certain media ". Since establishing is a process, it cannot be...

This paper discusses a way of introducing a scientific controversy, which emphasizes objective aspects of such issues as multiple theoretical interpretation of phenomena, choosing a theory, insistence on the chosen theory, and others. The goal is to give students a better insight into the workings of science and provide guidelines for building theo...

The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel is frequently called serendipitous, because on March 1, 1896, he developed "unexposed" photographic plates, which he had kept near a uranium salt, and found dark images on them. I show that Becquerel's discovery was a process in which, even in its early stage in 1896, chance entered in a number of e...

The purpose of.this workshop is to show how a'black box'called a 'battery' is made and how it works by reproducing experiments_of Volta and other pioneers of electricity. These experiments are suitable to teach students the art of scientific investigation. ihey can also provide insight into how scientists use experiments to support a theory and the...

The discovery of X rays had directly and immediately led to the discovery of radioactivity, and soon the two provided an important foundation for formulating the concept of the "electron," which in turn stimulated further research into X rays and radioactivity. 1. RONTGEN'S DISCOVERY The centennials of the three important discoveries celebrated in...

Discussing theories at length, including their origin, development, and replacement by other theories, can help students in understanding of both objective and subjective aspects of the scientific process. Presenting theories in the form of models helps in this undertaking, and the history of science provides a number of suitable models. The paper...

The discovery of the electron sheds a new light on the relations between theory and experiment and the role of precision. According to the tradition, it was an experimental discovery made by J.J. Thomson in 1897 as a result of measuring the charge-to-mass ratio elm for cathode rays. He found that these particles were about 1,000 times lighter than...

This is a part of lecture notes for the in-service University of Minnesota course 5940 Physics for High-School Teachers. It explains the philosophy of the course and describes the technique recommended to teachers to use in this class and subsequently in their schools, called the "historical-investigative" method. The course was taught by Dr. Nahum...

Röntgen's discovery of invisible penetrating rays and their application in medicine led to a search for a simpler and cheaper source of X-rays than a vacuum tube. Assuming that the true source of X-rays in a vacuum tube was the fluorescent spot on the glass wall against anti-cathode, physicists began to test all phosphorescent substances for emissi...

There is a role for historians of science in the field of science education. There are job opportunities there and there is a demand for a better quality of history used by teachers. Since the main task of a science teacher is teaching science, a historian in him/her would be be subordinated to a science teacher. On the other hand, expanding the ro...

To present physics as a science rather than a branch of mathematics we need to explain (at least, in examples) the nature of physical theories: how they are born, evolve, and die, and how they interact with experiment. One point to emphasize is that each phenomenon can support more than one theory. Second, the statement that the theory X was (was n...

A small rime gap between the discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity was not accidental. Wilhelm Roentgen's rays displayed contradictory properties. On the one hand, they behaved as ultraviolet light propagating rectilinearly and affecting photographic plates and fluorescent materials. On the other hand, they could not be reflected, refracted, or p...

The paper describes the author's experience in using the history of science in teaching physics to science teachers. It was found that history becomes more useful to teachers when explicitly combined with investigative experimentation, which, in turn, can benefit from various uses of the history of science.

Studying the establishing of the nature of X rays appears to provide interesting insights into the ways that new physical theories are offered and adopted. This paper deals only with the initial stage of this process,which encompasses the first two years after Roentgen's discovery. This period is selected because it was long enough for all competin...

The paper describes the author's experience in using the history of science in teaching physics to science teachers. It was found that history becomes more useful to teachers when it is closely combined with investigative experimentation. This approach can improve students' understanding of the subject matter and of the nature of science.

The quest for establishing the nature of X rays ended in 1922 with Arthur Compton's explanation of the wavelength change in X-ray scattering, and its last decade was discussed in detail by Roger Stuewer. Here I am going to talk about the earlier period ending in 1912 with the discovery of diffraction of X rays by Laue, Friedrich and Knipping. My ma...

Participants, college teachers, will learn how the concept of diffraction evolved, and what were experimental techniques to deal with it, including little known methods of Young and Fresnel. The focus will be on empirical study of phenomena, with a comparison of the results to known equations. The handout is based in part on the book Rediscovering...

A story of measurements of the speed of light, including the little known role of Thomas Young in the invention of two devices which played an important role in this measurements. One was the device to visualize a compound motion, and the other one was an instrument for measuring very short intervals of time. They served as a basis for Wheatstone's...

This paper describes a new method of combining the history of science with teaching physics in sеcondary school that has been developed at the Bakken Library and Museum in Minneapolis and applied in teaching science teachers. Its purpose was to improve teachers' understanding of physics and to give them a teaching technique that can make learning o...

For eight years, I have been teaching to physics and science teachers a new technique called historical-investigative approach. The historical component involves the history of science which is used on a much broader scale than usually. Anecdotes about scientists and their discoveries constitute only a small part of it. The main goal is to show how...

I Interference historiography and physics.- I.1 The "mystery" of Young's theory.- I.2 New approach.- I.3 What is "Young's wave theory"?.- I.4 "Interference" or "superposition"?.- I.5 What is the "acceptance of a theory"?.- II Thomas Young and the problem of intersecting sounds.- Section I: Young.- II. 1 What did Young discover about interference?.-...

Replicating historical experiments in the laboratory setting became an important part of various educational programs at The Bakken Library and Museum of Electricity in Life in Minneapolis. Students' experimentation in the classroom and even at home, if properly organized, increase students' activity, enhance their creativity, and give them all a c...

This paper describes a new method of combining the history of science with teaching physics in sccondary school that has been developed at the Bakken Library and Museum in Minneapolis and applied in teaching science teachers. Its purpose was to improve teachers' understanding of physics and to give them a teaching technique that can make learning o...

Abstract. This paper discusses a way of introducing a scientific controversy, which emphasizes objective aspects of such issues as multiple theoretical interpretations of phenomena, choosing a theory, insistence on the chosen theory, and others. The goal is to give students a better insight into the workings of science and provide guidelines for bu...

The author argues for a greater involvement of professional historians of science into teaching science to improve the historical component of science. Yet, however much some teachers like history they find no room in the curriculum for a history of science course. The solution is in make the history of science a useful tool for teaching physics. T...

Repeating historical experiments by means of simple and inexpensive equipment in laboratory setting is the best way to teach students how to investigate nature. The workshop is focused on rectilinear propagation of light and diffraction of light.

A new approach to teaching science, called "historical-investigative". Students repeat historical experiments in laboratory setting to learn the art of experimentation and how the actual discoveries were made. The approach aims at improving students' understanding of scientific concepts, stimulating their interest in science and helping them in dev...

Rediscovering Optics. Nahum Kipnis. Bena Press (Minneapolis, 1992). ISBN 0-9636784-0-X. $24.95. ' xii + 259 pp, $24.95. ISBN 0-9636784-0-X Browsing through this book I was dissatisfied with the style, reminding one of Galileo's Dialogo. I dislike the style as it normally forces me to read the whole of the text even if I want to use the book merely...

The third NSF-supported Bakken summer institute on "Physics and Life", for teachers of biological and physical sciences grades 8-12, will be on the Experimental Foundations of Acoustics and Hearing. Teachers will use historical and investigative approaches to improve their teaching of subjects related to sound and its perception. Using simple and i...

Most historians have believed that Young’s case for the principle of interference of light was strong.1 A few scholars, however, have concluded that his observations were too crude, some of his explanations were erroneous, and others overburdened with hypotheses.2 Since neither of these opinions seems well documented, the question remains open. I i...

As stated in 1.3, Young wanted to build a mathematical theory of periodical colors. Before examining this theory, let us see how this problem had been considered before Young.

One may suppose that the most natural and easy transition from temporal interference of sound to spatial interference of light (discovered in May 1801) would have been through spatial interference of sound or water waves. The reasoning behind this suggestion is that it is easier to formulate the principle of spatial interference and the conditions...

Fresnel’s principle of interference per se received little attention from historians, who have usually limited their task to its application to diffraction and chromatic polarization.1 Here, I intend to discuss two questions: 1) Fresnel’s innovations in the principle of interference and its applications, and 2) the role of the principle of interfer...

There is no agreement among historians about the meaning of Young’s discovery of the concept of interference. Robert Silliman, for instance, stated that, “The novelty of Young’s discovery lay not in the general concept of interference but in its application to optics. More than a century before, the idea of interference had been used by Newton hims...

According to the accepted view, the wave theory of light was first established in France as the outcome of the struggle between the “undulationists” and the “emissionists.” The former group included Fresnel, Arago, Ampère, Dulong, Petit, and Fourier, with Arago playing almost as important a role in the development and promotion of the wave theory a...

It has long been considered an historical anomaly that Young’s wave theory was not accepted before 1816. Some scholars claim, however, that this response was not at all unusual, since the theory did not, in fact, deserve to be accepted.1 As I have shown above, however, Young’s theory was not so severely flawed that it should have been completely ig...

Book Reviews - ISIS, 83:4 (1992), 671-2 Nahum Kipnis. History of the principle of Interference of Light. (Science Networks-Historical Studies, 5.) 271pp., illus., figs., tables, app., bibl., index. Basel,/Boston: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1991. $78. Since the 1960s the early nineteenth-century revolution in optics has been the sub- ject of considerable sc...

The debate on the nature of light began in antiquity and intensified in the second half of the seventeenth century. The major struggle was between the wave hypothesis and the emission (or corpuscular) hypothesis. Among the prominent scientists, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) and Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) advocated the wave hypothesis, while Isaac Ne...

The second NSF-supported Bakken summer institute for secondary school teachers of physical and biological sciences from the project "Physics and Life" be on the Experimental Foundations of Optics and Vision. The course will be taught by Dr. Nahum Kipnis, science educator of The Bakken and several guest lecturers. The institute will run from June 21...

Luck of interest in physics among US high-school students and a corresponding low performance in international activities has been well documented. A few studies showed that historical and cultural approach to teaching physics may help to spark students' interest. Accordingly, University of Minnesota offered a series of special summer physics cours...

Is it possible to create a high technology in a communist state at the conditions of general shortages and technological backwardness typical for USSR between 1946 and 1956? The paper shows that it is possible, but government orders are not sufficient for success: much enthusiasm and inventiveness are necessary.

This will be the first NSF-supported institute from the 3-year project "Physics and Life." It will run from June 26 to July 21, 1989. Participants will receive 4 University of Minnesota graduate credits for Physics 5940: "Physics for High School Teachers: Experimental Foundations and Historical Perspectives." The course is built on historical mater...

The origin of the Soviet computers, especially their technological aspect, drew little attention from historians. One of the reasons for this neglect was lack of documents related to the 1940s and 1950s. Yet, without knowing the origin it is difficult to understand the subsequent development. To fill the gap this paper pieces together bits of infor...

In July 1987 a group of 20 science teachers took part in the Summer Institute on vibrations and waves. Participants received 4 University of Minnesota graduate credits for the course Physics 5940: "Physics for High School Teachers: Experimental Foundations and Historical Perspectives." The course was taught at The Bakken Library and Museum of Elect...

Galvani's discovery provoked an animated debate that lasted for about a decade. So far, historians have studied only the controversy between Volta and Galvani. I show that a more extensive examination of the response to Galvani's treatise reveals a number of important issues that were characteristic of the contemporary physics and physiology but ha...

When the name of Galvani appears alongside the term "animal electricity" readers usually expect another discussion of the debate between Galvani and Volta in the 1790s. However, this paper is devoted to animal electricity per se, a scientific concept of electricity inherent in animal bodies. This concept was first conceived before Galvani, and this...

A Summer Institute for science teachers will took take place between July 7 and July 25, 1986 at The Bakken Library and Museum of Electricity and Life in Minneapolis. The course will be taught by Dr. Nahum Kipnis (The Bakken), Samuel Devons (Prof. Emeritus of Columbia Univ) will be a guest-lecturer. Participants may receive 4 graduate credits for P...

The Principle of Interference of Light did not result from a transfer of a mechanical principle of interference into optics. Thomas Young first pronounced this principle in 1799 as applied to sound, by interpreting the phenomenon of beats of sound to addition of two vibrations of almost the same frequency. For the next two years he transferred this...

In 1791 Galvani discovered that a frog's leg contracted when it was connected to the corresponding nerve by an ark of two different metals. Galvani attributed the effect to the action of electricity residing inside the frog, while Volta thought that the electricity resulted from a contact of two different metals, and Humboldt believed that the effe...

According to some historians, the famous Galvani-Volta debate on the nature of electricity producing muscular contractions in Galvani's experiments ended c. 1800 with a conclusion that an involvement of animal electricity in the phenomenon was not proven, and such a proof was given only by Matteucci and Du Bois Reymond four decades later. If this w...

The accepted story of the reception of Fresnel's theory of light in Paris has been that the proponents of the emission theory of light who domineered in the Academy of Sciences did their best to discredit the theory and discourage Fresnel from pursuing it. However, facts show a different picture, The Academy encouraged Fresnel's works, in particula...

Interference of light takes place only when light itself and its source satisfy certain conditions called "conditions of coherence". The history of this important concept had not being studied, and this paper intends to fill the gap by showing that it was Thomas Young who discovered most of them and revealed them in his works between 1801 and 1807....

It is not widely known that phenomena of interference of light not always had been associated with wave theories. In particular, early in the 19th century there were attempts to disengage the principle of interference from the wave theory of Young and Fresnel. Later, some physicists attempted to incorporate the principle of interference into the co...

At the first glance, Fresnel's first theory of diffraction of 1815 was exactly the same as Young's theory of 1802-04. However, a closer scrutiny revealed that Young's theory was short of the postulate of the phase change by reflected wave. Fresnel had this postulate, which improved a correlation between theory and experiment. [1984 NOTE: It turned...