Muhammad Talha Gill

Verified

Muhammad Talha verified their affiliation via an institutional email.

Learn more

Verified

Muhammad Talha verified their affiliation via an institutional email.

Learn more

• Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
• Student at University of Engineering and Technology Taxila

I want to mix two nanofluids Carbon nanotubes(CNT) and graphene and can anyone tell me how can i predict and determine their stability upon mixing before their preperation

This type of cell is made up of an ion-conducting membrane, such as Nafion (trademark for a perfluorosulfonic acid membrane). The electrodes are made of catalyzed carbon and may be built in a variety of configurations. Solid polymer electrolyte cells work effectively (as evidenced by their use in the Gemini spacecraft), but the total system cost estimates are expensive when compared to the other varieties. Improvements in engineering or electrode design may be able to mitigate this disadvantage.

Solid oxide fuel cells are comparable to molten carbonate systems in certain aspects. The majority of the cell components, on the other hand, are special ceramics containing nickel. An ion-conducting oxide, such as zirconia coated with yttria, serves as the electrolyte. Hydrogen coupled with carbon monoxide is predicted to provide the fuel for these experimental cells, exactly as it is for molten carbonate cells. The cell products would be water vapor and carbon dioxide, despite the fact that internal processes would take a different course. The electrode reactions happen quickly because to the high operating temperatures (900 to 1,000 °C, or 1,600 to 1,800 °F).There are significant engineering issues involved in constructing a long-lived containment system for cells that run at such a high temperature range, much as there are for molten carbonate fuel cells. Solid oxide fuel cells would be used in central power plants when temperature fluctuation could be easily regulated and fossil fuels were accessible. In most circumstances, the system would be linked to a bottoming steam (turbine) cycle, in which the hot gas product (at 1,000 °C) of the fuel cell could be utilized to produce steam, which could be used to operate a turbine and extract more power from heat energy. It's feasible to achieve overall efficiencies of 60%.

These fuel cells work in a different way from the ones we've spoken about so far. A combination of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is produced from water and a fossil fuel is used as the fuel. The electrolyte is molten potassium lithium carbonate, which requires a temperature of around 650 degrees Celsius (1200 degrees Fahrenheit) to operate. Warming these cells to operating temperatures can take several hours, making them unsuitable for cars. The electrodes are usually comprised of metals, while the containment system is constructed of metals and specific engineered polymers in most situations. Such material combinations are expected to be quite affordable, maybe three times less expensive than alkaline fuel cells and less expensive than phosphoric acid fuel cells. The hydrogen and carbon monoxide are combined with the carbonate electrolyte first, then with oxidizing oxygen to generate water vapor and carbon dioxide as a reaction product. Molten carbonate fuel cells are likely to find applications in both small and big power plants. Where fossil fuels are currently employed, 45 percent efficiency is possible. High-temperature operation is a design challenge for long-lasting system components and joints, particularly if the cells must be heated and cooled regularly. Power plant safety is a major problem in technical design and testing, as well as in commercial operation, due to the poisonous fuel and high temperature.

The orthophosphoric acid electrolyte in these cells allows them to operate at temperatures of up to 200 degrees Celsius (400 degrees Fahrenheit). They can utilize a hydrogen fuel that has been polluted with carbon dioxide, as well as an air or oxygen-based oxidizer. The electrodes are made of catalyzed carbon and are connected in pairs to form a series generating circuit. This assemblage of cells has a graphite frame structure, which significantly increases the cost. The greater temperature and aggressive hot phosphate cause structural issues, especially in joints, supporting pumps, and sensors. For local municipal power plants and remote-site generators, phosphoric acid fuel cells have been suggested and tested on a limited scale.

These are devices in which the electrolyte is an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The oxidizer is nearly always oxygen (or oxygen in the air), while the fuel is almost always hydrogen gas. However, if the by-product oxides were efficiently removed and the metal was supplied constantly as a strip or as a powder, zinc or aluminum could be utilized as an anode. Fuel cells are made of metal and some polymers and work at temperatures below 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit). Carbon and a metal, such as nickel, are used to make electrodes. Water must be removed from the system as a reaction product, which is commonly done by evaporating the electrolyte via the electrodes or in a separate evaporator. The operating support system has a serious design flaw. Most plastics are attacked by the strong, hot alkaline electrolyte, which also tends to penetrate structural seams and joints. However, this issue has been solved, and alkaline fuel cells are being employed aboard US space shuttle orbiters. Depending on the fuel and oxidizer used, as well as the calculation method used, overall efficiencies range from 30 to 80 percent.

A fuel cell may create energy from the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. This type of cell was utilized in the Apollo space programme for two purposes: as a source of fuel and as a supply of drinking water (the water vapor produced from the cell, when condensed, was fit for human consumption).

The hydrogen and oxygen were passed into a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution via carbon electrodes in order for the fuel cell to operate.

Cathode Reaction: O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e– → 4OH–

Anode Reaction: 2H₂ + 4OH– → 4H₂O + 4e–

Net Cell Reaction: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

A fuel cell may create energy from the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. This type of cell was utilized in the Apollo space programme for two purposes: as a source of fuel and as a supply of drinking water (the water vapor produced from the cell, when condensed, was fit for human consumption).

This electrochemical process, however, has a slow response rate. A catalyst, such as platinum or palladium, is used to solve this problem. Before being inserted into the electrodes, the catalyst is finely split to maximize the effective surface area. The above-mentioned fuel cell has a 70 percent efficiency in the generation of energy, whereas thermal power plants have a 40 percent efficiency. Because the creation of electric current in a thermal power plant requires the conversion of water into steam and the use of that steam to move a turbine, there is a significant variation in efficiency. Fuel cells, on the other hand, provide a platform for converting chemical energy into electrical energy directly.

Fuel cells are extremely clean because of their chemistry. The sole by products of fuel cells that employ pure hydrogen fuel are energy, heat, and water. Hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas, biogas, methanol, and others can be used in some types of fuel cell systems. Fuel cells may reach substantially better efficiency than traditional energy production systems like steam turbines and internal combustion engines because they create electricity via chemistry rather than combustion. A fuel cell can be integrated with a combined heat and power system to increase efficiency even further by using the cell's waste heat for heating or cooling.

Scalability is another benefit of fuel cells. Individual fuel cells can be connected to construct stacks in this manner. These stacks can then be joined together to create bigger systems. Fuel cell systems range in size and capacity from small-scale, multi-megawatt installations that feed electricity directly into the utility grid to large-scale, multi-megawatt installations that feed energy directly into the utility grid.

A fuel cell is a device that uses an electrochemical process to create energy rather than combustion to do so. Hydrogen and oxygen are mixed in a fuel cell to create electricity, heat, and water. Fuel cells are now employed in a number of applications, including powering homes and businesses, keeping important facilities like hospitals, grocery shops, and data centres operational, and moving a variety of vehicles such as automobiles, buses, trucks, forklifts, trains, and more. Fuel cell systems are a safe, efficient, dependable, and silent power source. Fuel cells, unlike batteries, do not need to be recharged on a regular basis; instead, they continue to generate energy as long as a fuel supply is available. An anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte membrane make up a fuel cell. In a conventional fuel cell, hydrogen passes through the anode and oxygen passes via the cathode. A catalyst breaks hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons at the anode location. The protons flow through the porous electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are driven through a circuit, resulting in an electric current and a lot of heat. The protons, electrons, and oxygen unite at the cathode to form water molecules.

The nozzle of a cross-flow turbine is elongated and rectangular in form, and it is directed against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. It has the appearance of a "squirrel cage" blower. Water flows twice through the blades of a cross-flow turbine. Water flows from the outside to the interior of the blades on the first pass; on the second run, water travels from the inside to the outside. The flow is directed into a limited part of the runner by a guide vane at the turbine's entry. The cross-flow turbine was designed to handle higher water flows and lower heads than the Pelton.

One or more free jets discharge water into an aerated zone, impinging on the buckets of a runner, in a Pelton wheel(a type of impulse turbine). Pelton turbines are typically employed in situations where there are high heads and low flows. Because the runner must be situated above the maximum tailwater to allow operation at atmospheric pressure, draft tubes are not required for an impulse turbine.

The runner of an impulse turbine is usually moved by the velocity of the water, and it discharges at atmospheric pressure. Each bucket on the runner is struck by a stream of water. The water falls out the bottom of the turbine housing after striking the runner because there is no suction on the down side of the turbine. In general, an impulse turbine is best for high-head, low-flow applications. Pelton and cross-flow turbines are the two primary forms of impulse turbines.

Kinetic energy turbines, also known as free-flow turbines, produce electricity by using the kinetic energy of moving water rather than the potential energy of the head. Rivers, man-made channels, tidal streams, and ocean currents are all possible places for the systems to work. Because kinetic systems employ the natural flow of a water stream, they do not require water to be diverted through man-made channels, riverbeds, or pipelines, but they may have uses in these conduits. Because they may utilize existing infrastructure like bridges, tailraces, and channels, kinetic systems do not necessitate massive civil works.

In 1849, British-American engineer James Francis designed the Francis turbine, which became the first modern hydropower turbine. The runner of a Francis turbine contains nine or more fixed blades. Water is sprayed immediately above and all around the runner, and it falls into the blades, making them to spin. A scroll case, wicket gates, and a draught tube are all important components in addition to the runner. Francis turbines are often utilized for medium to high-head (130 to 2,000 feet) applications, however they have also been employed for lower heads. Both horizontal and vertical orientations are suitable for Francis turbines.

The turbine and generator of a Bulb turbine are housed in a sealed unit that is submerged in the water. The generator of the Straflo turbine is directly connected to the turbine's periphery. The penstock of a Tube turbine bends immediately before or after the runner, providing a direct connection to the generator. The blades and wicket gates of the Kaplan Turbine are both adjustable, providing for a greater range of operation.

The runner of a propeller turbine usually contains three to six blades. Water is continually in touch with all of the blades. Consider a propeller on a boat passing through a tube. The pressure in the pipe is constant; otherwise, the runner would be out of balance. The blades' pitch might be fixed or changeable. A scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube are the main components, in addition to the runner.

In reaction turbine, the combined forces of pressure and flowing water drive a reaction turbine, which creates electricity. A runner is put directly in the water stream, allowing the water to flow over the blades instead of striking each one separately. Reaction turbines are often employed in sites with a lower head and greater flow rates.

The kind of hydropower turbine used for a project is determined by the height of standing water at the location (known as "head") and the flow, or volume of water over time. Other considerations include the depth to which the turbine must be installed, turbine efficiency, and cost.

How many types of cracking are done with gasoline all over the world

Cracking is done with gasoline all over the world what are the main benefits of cracking