Michael C Ashton

Brock University · Department of Psychology

We re-oriented the HEXACO personality dimensions to approximate the Big Five, using two measures of the Big Five as targets in a derivation sample and then in cross-validation samples. The HEXACO approximations of Big Five Agreeableness represented blends of HEXACO Agreeableness, Emotionality, and Honesty-Humility. The HEXACO approximations of Big...

The BFI-2 has been known to be suboptimal in assessing HEXACO Honesty-Humility (H). Recently, Denissen, Soto, Geenen, John, and van Aken (2022) attempted to improve the BFI-2's coverage of H by adding an Honesty facet to the Agreeableness scale. The present research was conducted to examine how well H variance is accounted for by this expanded BFI-...

We examined the Bullshitting Frequency (BSF) scale in relation to the personality dimensions of the HEXACO and Big Five structures, using self-reports from 572 university students. As predicted, BSF was mainly associated with low Honesty-Humility from the HEXACO model and was better accommodated within the HEXACO than within the Big Five structure....

The HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) is widely used in personality research. Several brief inventories measuring broadly similar six-factor structures have recently emerged (e.g., the Mini-International Personality Item Pool (Mini-IPIP6; Milojev et al., 2013), the Brief HEXACO Inventory (BHI; De Vries, 2013), and the 24-Item Quest...

Self-reports on the HEXACO-PI-R scales were examined in relation to academic majors in post-secondary education ( N > 73,000). Openness to Experience showed the largest mean differences across academic major areas, with the Visual/Performing Arts and Humanities areas averaging higher and Health Sciences and Business/Commerce averaging lower. Emotio...

The HEXACO personality factors of Agreeableness‐versus‐Anger (A) and Honesty‐Humility (H) are interpreted as two complementary aspects of reciprocal altruistic tendency. Here we consider several ways of representing the positive associations between the defining traits of A and of H, through common factor analysis of self‐report HEXACO Personality...

We review research on personality/religiousness associations, integrating earlier meta-analyses with recent large-sample online studies. We find that general religiousness shows small positive associations with broad personality factors (e.g. HEXACO Honesty-Humility, Big Five Agreeableness, Conscientiousness) and somewhat stronger positive associat...

The HEXACO model of personality structure consists of six basic dimensions: Honesty‐Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). The HEXACO model is derived from the findings of lexically‐based studies of personality structure as conducted in various languages. Its dimen...

The HEXACO model of personality structure consists of six basic dimensions: Honesty‐Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). The HEXACO model is derived from the findings of lexically‐based studies of personality structure as conducted in various languages. Its dimen...

The HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) has evolved into one of the most heavily applied measurement tools for the assessment of basic personality traits. Correspondingly, the inventory has been translated to several languages for use in cross-cultural research. However, formal tests examining whether the different language versions...

Objective We examined sex differences in the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised (HEXACO‐PI‐R) factor‐ and facet‐level scales and the associations of national sex differences in those scales with national characteristics such as wealth and gender equality. Method HEXACO‐PI‐R self‐reports were collected online from persons in 48 countries (N=347,1...

We test for the existence of a general factor of personality self-reports in HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) facet scales, using two samples of persons who responded under normal conditions and two samples of persons who responded under conditions in which at least some participants would perceive some incentive to describe thems...

The six‐dimensional HEXACO model of personality structure and its associated inventory have increasingly been used in personality research. But in spite of the evidence supporting this structure and demonstrating its advantages over five‐dimensional models, some researchers continue to use and promote the latter. Although there has been little over...

We examined the joint factor structure of the 30 facets of the NEO Personality Inventory – Revised (NEO-PI-R; or the NEO-PI-3) with either (a) the 25 facets of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) or (b) the 15 facets of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) plus several dissociation scales, using self-reports from par...

Objective To examine associations of religiousness with personality characteristics. Method We obtained self‐ratings of religiousness along with self‐reports on the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised in a sample of nearly 200,000 online respondents. Respondents also indicated their religious affiliation, religiousness of upbringing, and politica...

We examined the relations between the scales of the Next Big Five Inventory (BFI-2) and the 60-item version of the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised (HEXACO-60) using self-reports from a Canadian undergraduate sample (N = 700). Results showed generally close correspondences between conceptually similar HEXACO-60 and BFI-2 scales, although HEXACO...

Two personality dimensions of the HEXACO model—Honesty-Humility and Openness—have previously been found to correlate with left-wing political orientation. From a cross-sectional dataset divided into samples from the USA (N = 77,778) and other countries (N = 105,232), the Openness/politics link showed a linear upward trend across age cohorts, wherea...

We examined the ability of several Big Five measures to account for variance in HEXACO Personality Inventory–Revised (HEXACO–PI–R) scales and vice versa. Some Big Five measures accounted for more variance in HEXACO Honesty-Humility than did others, but these differences were largely offset by opposing differences in accounting for variance in HEXAC...

The relations of HEXACO personality factors and religiosity with political orientation were examined in responses collected online from participants in 33 countries (N = 141 492). Endorsement of a right‐wing political orientation was negatively associated with Honesty‐Humility and Openness to Experience and positively associated with religiosity. T...

Abstract: Despite convincing counterevidence, misinterpretation of so-called Impression Management, Social Desirability, or Lie scales in low-stakes settings seems to persist. In this reply to an ongoing discussion with Feldman and colleagues (De Vries et al., 2017; Feldman, in press; Feldman et al., 2017), we argue that high scores on Impression M...

The relations of HEXACO personality factors and religiosity with political orientation were examined in responses collected online from participants in 33 countries (N = 141,492). Endorsement of a right-wing political orientation was negatively associated with Honesty-Humility and Openness to Experience, and positively associated with religiosity....

There is interest in the psychological meaning of the variance shared among the “Dark Triad” variables (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy). Unknown is the degree to which this common variance is distinct from that of the basic personality dimensions. We test the extent to which the latent Dark Triad overlaps with the low pole of the HEXACO...

This article shows that the conclusion of Feldman et al.’s (2017) Study 1 that profane individuals tend to be honest is most likely incorrect. We argue that Feldman et al.’s conclusion is based on a commonly held but erroneous assumption that higher scores on Impression Management Scales, such as the Lie Scale, are associated with trait dishonesty....

Self/observer agreement on HEXACO-PI-R scale scores was examined as a function of observers’ subjective ratings of acquaintanceship. For each participant (N = 2200), personality self-reports were obtained along with observer reports from a friend. Each factor-level scale displayed a different pattern of upward accuracy trends in personality judgmen...

Previous research has examined self-identified sexual orientation in relation to self-reports on the Big Five personality factors. Here we extend this research by including asexuality as a fourth sexual orientation and by assessing the HEXACO personality factors, using self-report data from a large anonymous online sample (N ≈ 100,000). A large ove...

Using self- and observer reports on the Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID–5) and the HEXACO Personality Inventory–Revised (HEXACO–PI–R), we identified for each inventory several trait dimensions (each defined by both self- and observer reports on the facet-level scales belonging to the same domain) and 2 source dimensions (each defined by self-r...

We examined age differences in the six broad HEXACO personality factors and their defining facets, using self-reports from an online sample (N ≈ 100,000, ages 14 to 74). Honesty-Humility showed an upward trend of about one full standard deviation unit between ages 18 and 60. Age trends for Emotionality and Extraversion differed by facet, but overal...

Psychometric properties of the 100-item English-language HEXACO Personality Inventory–Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) were examined using samples of online respondents (N = 100,318 self-reports) and of undergraduate students (N = 2,868 self- and observer reports). The results were as follows: First, the hierarchical structure of the HEXACO-100 was clearly su...

People differ in the extent to which they identify with humans beyond their ingroup and with non-human living things. We refer to the former as the Connectedness to Humanity (CH) and to the latter as the Connectedness to Nature (CN). In a sample of 324 undergraduate students, CH and CN were operationalized using the Identification with All Humanity...

We investigated the links of the HEXACO personality factors and facets with the proclivity to apologize for transgressions, using self- and observer-reports of personality in two adult samples. The proclivity to apologize showed its strongest correlations with the honesty–humility factor, whether evaluated by the self or a knowledgeable observer. A...

We report solutions for one' through six components for self-ratings (N = 559) on 449 familiar English personality-descriptive adjectives (see Lee & Ashton, 2008). The first unrotated component mainly contrasted desirable with undesirable characteristics. The varimax-rotated two-component solution contained dimensions closely resembling the Social...

Meier et al. (2012) reported a correlation of .36 between self-reported prosocial personality and preference for sweet-tasting foods. We examined further a possible link between having a “sweet” personality and liking sweet foods, by obtaining self- and observer reports of personality in two samples of about 300 participants each. In both samples,...

The “Dark Triad” of Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and psychopathy has received much research attention since the seminal article of Paulhus and Williams (2002). The introduction of the Dark Triad came shortly after the discovery of a six-dimensional model of personality characteristics, now called the HEXACO model. One of the HEXACO factors—Honesty...

Hampshire et al. (2012) suggested that the positive correlations among all mental ability tasks do not necessarily imply the existence of a general intelligence (g) factor (e.g., Spearman, 1904), but could instead be explained by “task mixing”, that is, the influence of multiple independent ability factors on the various tasks. We note here that th...

We respond to the main points raised by Hampshire et al. (2014). First, we note that the simulation study of Hampshire et al. (2012) was based on the assumption that individual differences in the capacities of the three proposed brain networks are mutually independent. However, this orthogonality cannot be assumed even if those networks are anatomi...

We explain that Hampshire, Parkin, Highfield, and Owen (2014b) have not demonstrated any orthogonality of brain network capacities and that a model of mental ability structure must make testable predictions about individual differences in task performance. Evidence thus far indicates that g-based models account for intercorrelations among mental ab...

We review research and theory on the HEXACO personality dimensions of Honesty-Humility (H), Agreeableness (A), and Emotionality (E), with particular attention to the following topics: (1) the origins of the HEXACO model in lexical studies of personality structure, and the content of the H, A, and E factors in those studies; (2) the operationalizati...

In a sample of 346 college students, we compared students of different academic major areas in their personality characteristics, mental abilities, and vocational interests, and we examined the congruence between vocational interests and academic major as a predictor of academic outcomes (grade point average, satisfaction, and change of major). Res...

Salgado, Moscoso, and Berges (2013) have recently commented on the issue of the comparative validity of broad factor-level personality traits and narrow facet-level personality traits, providing arguments and data suggesting superior validity for the former. In response, we first clarify some of our previous points that were discussed by Salgado et...

We describe a large sample study (N = 652) that had two purposes. The first was to replicate a previous study (Paunonen & Ashton, 2001a, Journal of Research in Personality) in which we showed that lower-level personality trait measures related to achievement motivation predict the academic success of university students. The second purpose was to t...

We investigated the validity of two personality inventories the NEO-FFI and HEXACO-60-in predicting scores on each of the factor scales of the other instrument, both within and between sources of data. We also examined the extent to which the source-specific variances of the scales of each inventory are attributable to a common factor of response b...

Although the validity of integrity tests for predicting the focal criterion of counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) is well-established, little research has yet addressed the incremental CWB-related validity of integrity tests beyond basic personality traits. The present research addresses this issue by re-analyzing data adopted from Marcus, Lee,...

Data were collected from two undergraduate student samples to examine (i) the relations of the ‘Dark Triad’ variables (Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism) with the HEXACO personality dimensions, as well as (ii) the ability of the aforementioned characteristics and of the Big Five personality factors to predict outcome variables related t...

The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5), a new measure of maladaptive personality traits, has recently been developed by the DSM-5 Personality and Personality Disorders Workgroup. The PID-5 variables were examined within the seven-factor space defined by the six HEXACO factors and the Schizotypy/Dissociation factor (Ashton & Lee, 2012) using pa...

We suggest that the description by Cramer et al. (2012) of traditional models of personality structure does not perfectly reflect the models actually endorsed by researchers. Personality researchers assume that many variables will have considerable secondary loadings and that the major personality factors will not account for all of the covariation...

HEXACO Agreeableness has been suggested to be the personality dimension that chiefly underlies forgiveness and retaliation, but some evidence suggests that these variables are also related to Honesty-Humility. In this study, self- and peer reports of personality were collected from a sample of 198 students to examine how the HEXACO Agreeableness an...

Low anxiety has traditionally been considered a feature of psychopathy, but there has been mixed research support for this conceptualization. We investigated the PPI-R-SF Stress Immunity subscale (a measure of low anxiety) in relation to 2 widely used self-report psychopathy scales in a sample of 346 undergraduate students. Results indicated that P...

The construct of Oddity was examined in relation to the dimensions of normal personality variation and a dimension of schizotypy and dissociation. In 2 studies involving samples of community adults (N = 409) and college students (N = 378), Oddity-as operationalized in terms of perceived strangeness or eccentricity-was found to be moderately related...

Honesty-Humility, one of the six major personality dimensions included in the HEXACO model of personality structure, has previously been found to show negative correlations with workplace deviance. In this study, we hypothesised that Extraversion would moderate the relationship between Honesty-Humility and workplace deviance. In particular, we posi...

There is considerable scientific interest in the psychological correlates of pro-environmental behaviors. Much research has focused on demographic and social-psychological characteristics of individuals who consistently perform such actions. Here, we report the results of 2 studies in which we explored relations between broad personality traits and...

a b s t r a c t Demographic differences in rates of mortality, violence, and accidents are frequently attributed to underly-ing differences in a personality disposition of competitive risk seeking. Here we describe a new Status-Driven Risk Taking (SDRT) scale that assesses this construct, and we examine its relations with the major dimensions of pe...

We comment on several aspects of De Raad et al. (2010), who concluded that only three factors of personality description could be recovered across languages. First, small differences in the congruence coefficients of factors were interpreted by De Raad et al. as indicating large differences in factor replicability. Also, in three languages, a facto...

We examined the relations of psychopathy with physical attractiveness, several aspects of sexual behavior, and appearance-related self-esteem. In a mixed-sex sample of 198 undergraduate students, we found substantial sex differences in the correlates of psychopathy. Consistent with previous research, psychopathy was associated with early and promis...

We examined the joint factor structure of self-reports and observer reports on the facet scales of the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised in a sample of 563 pairs of well-acquainted persons. In separate analyses based on a targeted orthogonal rotation and on a CFA model, we identified six trait factors (representing the HEXACO dimensions) plus tw...

We investigated the psychometric properties of the Oregon Vocational Interest Scales (ORVIS), a brief public-domain alternative to commercial inventories, in a large community sample and in a college sample. In both samples, we examined the factor structure, scale intercorrelations, and personality correlates of the ORVIS, and in the community samp...

We investigated the personality bases of two broad dimensions of socio-political attitudes—Hierarchy (versus Equality) Orientation and Social Conformity (versus Change) Orientation. In a US adult sample and in Canadian and Korean college student samples, we administered the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised, and we assessed the socio-political d...

We describe the HEXACO-60, a short personality inventory that assesses the 6 dimensions of the HEXACO model of personality structure. We selected the 10 items of each of the 6 scales from the longer HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised (Ashton & Lee, 2008; Lee & Ashton, 2004, 2006), with the aim of representing the broad range of content that defin...

We investigated the structure of the Greek personality lexicon, based on a reanalysis of the data reported by Saucier, Georgiades, Tsaousis, and Goldberg. To facilitate comparisons with previous lexical studies of personality structure, our factor analyses were based on ipsatized (i.e., within-subject standardized) ratings on the Greek adjective va...

Scales that measure the Big Five personality factors are often substantially intercorrelated. These correlations are sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of two higher order factors of personality. The authors show that correlations between measures of broad personality factors do not necessarily imply the existence of higher order facto...

The authors obtained self- and observer reports of personality from pairs of well-acquainted college students. Consistent with previous findings, results of Study 1 showed strong cross-source agreement for all 6 HEXACO personality factors (rs approximately .55). In addition, the authors found modest levels of similarity (r approximately .25) betwee...

We examined the validity of self-reported personality traits and values in predicting self-and peer reports of behavior. Self-and peer reports were obtained from 252 undergraduate students on the HEXACO Personality Inventory, the Schwartz Value Survey, and scales assessing value-expressive behaviors. Self-reports of personality and of values correl...

Recent research aimed at identifying distinct personality types has generally searched for such types in the space of the dimensions of the Big Five or Five-Factor model. We extended this search to the space of the HEXACO model of personality structure, using data from a large community sample of adults. In a series of cluster analyses involving 3...

Recent research has suggested that a six-dimensional model of personality called the HEXACO framework may have particular value in organizational settings because of its ability to predict integrity-related outcomes. In this series of studies, the potential value of the HEXACO factor known as Honesty-Humility was further examined. First, the empiri...

This article examines the six largest dimensions of the Turkish personality lexicon, as derived from the personality-descriptive terms of Goldberg and Somer's (2000) data set. The six Turkish lexical factors show close correspondences of content to all six dimensions observed in several other languages. In a new data set, the authors then correlate...

We examined two questions involving the relative validity of the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of personality structure. First, would the HEXACO model outpredict the Five-Factor Model (FFM) with regard to several diverse criteria that are conceptually relevant to the Honesty–Humility dimension of personality? If so, would the addition of a proxy Ho...

The 'erratum and addendum' by Anderson and Ones (2008) does not state unambiguously that participants' Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) scale scores were incorrectly matched with their scores on the other inventories' scales, nor does it mention the existence of other errors in the scoring of the Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ) and Bu...

Two studies tested the correspondence between six dimensions obtained in lexical studies of personality structure and the proposed HEXACO personality framework. Study 1 examined the English personality lexicon using 449 adjectives selected according to rated frequency of use in personality description. Six validimax-rotated factors derived from adj...

We give a brief summary of recent research on the structure of personality characteristics, describing the six-dimensional ‘HEXACO’ model that has emerged as the most accurate representation of that structure. We then discuss the importance of personality as a predictor of socially important criteria, describing a variety of examples involving the...

Recent research has indicated that the various specific phobias are only modestly correlated with the personality dimensions of the Big Five or Five-Factor Model (B5/FFM). We tested the hypothesis that the specific phobias would be more strongly associated with the dimensions of an alternative framework, the HEXACO model of personality structure. S...

The HEXACO model (Lee & Ashton, 2004, 2006) of personality structure is based on 6 dimensions that have been recovered in lexical studies of personality in various languages. In this study, we examined a Dutch version of the HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI; Lee & Ashton, 2004) and found it to have satisfactory psychometric properties. Addit...

This study examined the correlates of self-estimated levels of the eight abilities of Gardner's (1983) "multiple intelligences" framework. Participants (N = 200) estimated their own levels of the eight abilities, completed two maximum performance tests of each ability, and provided self-ratings of their personality characteristics. As observed in p...

The possible existence of a broad factor of masculine versus feminine (M-F) occupational interests was tested. Data from Lippa (2005) were reanalyzed using common factor analysis and omitting redundant composite variables. The first unrotated factor, as obtained in male-only and female-only samples, was very small and showed weak loadings for most...

We identified 1839 person-descriptive adjectives from a Polish dictionary, and 10 judges classified those adjectives into five descriptive categories. Two hundred ninety adjectives (16 per cent) were classified by most judges as ‘Dispositions’ (i.e. relatively stable personality traits and abilities). We examined the structure of those 290 adjectiv...

The present study examined the relations of sexuality variables—specifically, the “Sexy Seven” scales and Sociosexual Orientation—with personality dimensions of the HEXACO model and the Five-Factor model (FFM). The Extraversion factors of both models were associated with the Sexy Seven scales of Emotional Investment and Sexual Attractiveness, where...

Recently, Lee and Ashton (2004) described the HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI), a new instrument designed to assess the six dimensions observed in lexical studies of personality structure of various languages. Here, we describe the development of an alternative measure of the HEXACO factors and their facets, using the items of the Internati...

The authors argue that a new six-dimensional framework for personality structure--the HEXACO model--constitutes a viable alternative to the well-known Big Five or five-factor model. The new model is consistent with the cross-culturally replicated finding of a common six-dimensional structure containing the factors Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality...

Although the criterion-related validity of integrity tests is well established, there has not been enough research examining which personality constructs contribute to their criterion-related validity. Moreover, evidence of how well findings on integrity tests in North America generalize to non-English speaking countries is virtually absent. This r...

We correlated the scales of the HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) with adjective scale markers of factors previously obtained in indigenous lexical studies of personality structure in the German language. Self-ratings obtained from a sample of 323 German participants showed a pattern of strong convergent and weak discriminant correlations, s...

We correlated the scales of the HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) with adjective scale markers of personality factors previously obtained in indigenous lexical studies of personality structure in the Italian, Dutch, and English languages. Self-ratings were obtained from samples of 327 Italian, 161 Dutch, and 214 English-speaking Canadian par...

Gardner [Gardner, H. (2006-this issue). On failing to grasp the core of MI theory: A response to Visser et al. Intelligence] criticized some aspects of our empirical examination [Visser, B. A., Ashton, M. C., & Vernon, P. A. (2006-this issue). Beyond g: Putting multiple intelligences theory to the test. Intelligence] of his “Theory of Multiple Inte...

We investigated Gardner's “Theory of Multiple Intelligences” in a sample of 200 adults. For each of the hypothesized eight “intelligence” domains–Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalistic–we selected two tests based on Gardner's description of its content. Factor analysis reve...

Gignac [Gignac, G. E. (2006). Evaluating subtest ‘g’ saturation levels via the single trait-correlated uniqueness (STCU) SEM approach: Evidence in favor of crystallized subtests as the best indicators of ‘g’. Intelligence, 34, 29–46.] used a single-trait correlated uniqueness (STCU) CFA approach to calculate “minimally biased” g-loadings of the sub...

The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) operationalizes the six factors obtained from lexical studies of personality structure in several languages. In this study, psychometric properties of the HEXACO-PI were assessed using a community adult sample and also using observer reports, thereby extending the previous investigation relying only on s...

Seven experts on personality measurement here discuss the viability of public-domain personality measures, focusing on the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) as a prototype. Since its inception in 1996, the use of items and scales from the IPIP has increased dramatically. Items from the IPIP have been translated from English into more than...

This study investigated the relations of the proposed sixth factor of personality, Honesty-Humility, with the dimensions of the classic English lexical Big Five and the closely related Five-Factor Model (FFM). Results showed that although Honesty-Humility was largely unrelated to markers of the Big Five factors, it was substantially correlated with...

Paunonen (2002) recently developed the Supernumerary Personality Inventory (SPI), a measure of 10 traits that have low loadings within the space of the Big Five personality factors. If the SPI personality traits are representative of the domain of non-Big Five personality traits, then the major source of the variance in the SPI traits would be expe...

We examine objections raised by Robinson (2005) to arguments in Ashton, Lee, and Vernon (2001), with reference to three methods we suggested for comparing the extent to which fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc) abilities represent “intelligence”. We suggest that results of analyses using these methods do not support the arguments that “Gc is the true...

Our response to Cervone (2005) can be summarized as follows. The factor structure of intraindividual fluctuations in personality‐related variables does not bear on the evaluation of a model of (interindividual) personality structure. Even if such a model is associated with claims regarding the causal origins of its dimensions, this does not imply t...

The method of correlated vectors has been used widely to identify variables that are associated with general intelligence (g). Briefly, this method involves finding the correlation between the vector of intelligence subtests' g-loadings and the vector of those subtests' correlations with the variable in question. We describe two major problems with...

The structure of personality variation is discussed from the perspective of the lexical approach, which is based on the examination of relations among personality-descriptive adjectives that are indigenous to various languages. The results of this approach--which reveal a cross-culturally replicated set of six dimensions--are described. Specificall...