Merrill Swain

University of Toronto | U of T · Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning

Languaging is a source of second language learning. The concept of languaging derives from Vygotsky's work, which demonstrated the critical role language plays in mediating cognitive processes. This entry defines languaging and collaborative dialogue (a type of languaging), and it reviews research that (a) demonstrates collaborative dialogue as a s...

The aim of this paper is twofold. On a conceptual level, we argue that the cognitive and emotive exist in dialectic relation to one another and that as such both are ever present in psychological activity, including L2 development. Related to this first point, we seek to orient researchers and practitioners to ways in which interactions with learne...

This is a remarkably interesting and useful book…it makes a significant contribution to our knowledge and understanding of both bilingualism and education.' Journal of Education Policy.

In this study we compare test takers’ performance on the Speaking section of the TOEFL iBTTM and their performances during their real-life academic studies. Thirty international graduate students from mixed language backgrounds in two different disciplines (Sciences and Social Sciences) responded to two independent and four integrated speaking task...

The purpose of our exploratory program of research is to investigate the role of lan-guaging activities implemented with residents of long-term care facilities; we suggest that these activities may enhance aspects of participating residents' cognition and affect. Languaging is the use of language to mediate cognitive and affective processes. In thi...

The scholarly literature about the process of second language (L2) learning has focused to a considerable extent on cognitive processes. Left aside are questions about how emotions fit into an understanding of L2 learning. One goal of this plenary is to demonstrate that we have limited our understanding of L2 learning by failing to take into accoun...

An enduring issue in immersion education focuses on the appropriate use of the L1 in the one-way or two-way immersion classroom. In this article we discuss several key constructs (mediation, languaging, the cognition/emotion relationship, zone of proximal development) that are central to a Vygotskian sociocultural theory of mind perspective on seco...

In this entry, we first define collaborative dialogue (a type of languaging). Following that, we discuss some of the research which suggests that collaborative dialogue is a source of L2 learning and development, and ways in which collaborative dialogue mediates L2 learning and development. This is followed by a discussion of studies which consider...

In this article we argue that language functions as more than just a form of communication; it functions as a cognitive tool as well. The use of language to mediate complex cognitive functioning such as problem solving, attending, and recalling has been referred to as languaging. We demonstrate that languaging is associated with enhanced cognitive...

In this paper, one of the goals is to highlight a disciplinary intersection between applied linguistics, psychology and gerontology. Though connections between applied linguistics and psychology, and applied linguistics and gerontology, have been made in the past, the particular intersection described offers some new insights by making use of a Vyg...

This study investigated the strategic behaviors that test-takers reported using when responding to integrated and independent speaking tasks in an English oral proficiency test [the Speaking Section of the Internet-based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TM) (TOEFL iBT)] and the relationship between test-takers' strategic behaviors and their t...

Vygotsky's writings have established the critical importance of language in the development of higher mental functions, including memory and attention. One of the processes involved in this development is languaging, the activity of mediating cognitively complex ideas using language (Swain, 2006). The present study of an older adult with mild cogni...

Adopting a case study approach, we examined the quality of three measures of change in cognition and affect for older adults. The measures were used in a pre/post-test design to examine the effects of engaging older adults in languaging on their cognitive functioning and affect. Each of two researchers engaged each participant in the production of...

RÉSUMÉ “Cet article traite de la question: Quel est le rôle du (la mise en mots) – l’élaboration et l’organisation des processus mentaux supérieures par la langue – dans les zones émergents de développement proximales (ZDPs) co-crée par deux adultes ? » Les deux adultes sont Mike, un résident dans un établissement de soins de longue durée, et un ch...

In this study, framed within a sociocultural theory of mind, we explore the role of languaging in mediating between students’ understanding of a grammatical concept and their written production of the forms related to that concept. The development of scientific concepts, in this case of the concept of voice in French, involves the use of language t...

The growing literature about the positive effect of languaging or self-explaining has so far failed to determine why some learners benefit from languaging more than others. We attempt to address this gap through a microgenetic analysis of the languaging behaviour of two university students learning French as a second language, whom we identify as a...

This study responds to the Test of English as a Foreign Language™ (TOEFL ® ) research agenda concerning the need to understand the processes and knowledge that test‐takers utilize. Specifically, it investigates the strategic behaviors test‐takers reported using when taking the Speaking section of the TOEFL iBT™ (SSTiBT). It also investigates how th...

In this paper, we discuss two types of discourse: the first one—the discourse of cognitive impairment of a long-term care facility (LTCF) reflected in the institution’s language policy and in the language use of several caregivers of the LTCF; and the second one, the discourse of ‘small’ stories (Bamberg and Georgakopoulou 2008) told by Alise, a re...

In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of the grammatical concept of voice (active, passive, and middle) in French. We examine and analyze the amount and type of languaging produced by a small sample of university students as they struggle to understand the concept of voice. Students who are hig...

This study responds to the Test of English as a Foreign Language[TM] (TOEFL[R]) research agenda concerning the need to understand the processes and knowledge that test-takers utilize. Specifically, it investigates the strategic behaviors test-takers reported using when taking the Speaking section of the TOEFL iBT[TM] (SSTiBT). It also investigates...

ABSTRACT This paper examines the diaries that were kept by 18 anglophone high-school students of French while they spent three months in Quebec as part of an exchange program. The four main research issues deal with: 1) insights into the language learning process provided by the student diarists; 2) affective factors in language learning; 3) extral...

In this article, we explore one aspect of language awareness that has rarely been explored—awareness (i.e. perception) of the language proficiency of the ‘other learner’ in pair work settings. We examine how Mai, a Japanese ESL learner, perceives her peer's L2 proficiency during pair problem solving, and how her perception of learner proficiency af...

IntroductionWhether Interaction Promotes L2 LearningHow Interaction Facilitates L2 LearningPedagogical Implications for Communicative Language Learning

In this article we explore the process and product of languaging as it concerns the learning of the grammatical concept of voice (active, passive, and middle) in French. We examine and analyze the amount and type of languaging produced by a small sample of university students as they struggle to understand the concept of voice. Students who are hig...

How have the ideas raised by Firth and Wagner (1997) influenced the construction of second language acquisition (SLA) theories? In this article, we take the position that prior to and since 1997, there was and has been a notable increase in SLA research and theory that prioritizes sociocultural and contextual factors in addition to acknowledging in...

This study investigated the effects of second language (L2) proficiency differences in pairs and patterns of interaction on L2 learning, making use of both qualitative and quantitative data. We designed the study in such a way that four different core participants interacted with higher and lower proficiency non-core participants. These learners en...

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the Interlanguage (IL) hypothesis should be extended from (1)adult second-language acquisition settings to (2) those non-simultaneous child language acquisition settings where the major sociolinguistic variables is the absence of peers who are native speakers of the target language (TL). The paper fi...

This paper presents empirical data concerning the use of cloze tests to measure children's language proficiency in a bilingual education program. Grade five students in their sixth year of a primary French immersion program were tested using both English and French cloze tests. Correlations between the cloze test and other language achievement meas...

This paper questions the assumption that the relationship between time spent studying in a second language and second language proficiency is highly related for those aspects of language related to cognitive and academic functioning. The implications of this questioning are explored as they relate to the time devoted to instruction in the second la...

In 1997 Swain and Johnson defined immersion as one category within bilingual education, providing examples and discussion from multiple international perspectives. In this article, we review the core features of immersion program design identified by Swain and Johnson and discuss how current sociopolitical realities and new research on second langu...

This paper provides evidence of the role of cognitive conflict in the process of learning a second language. Twelve grade 7 French immersion students participated in a multi-stage task that provided them with the opportunity to discuss the reformulation of a text they had written. Through a pre-test and post-test design, it is demonstrated that the...

One of the advantages of having students work in pairs on language-related tasks is that teachers and researchers can listen to what the students say as they carry out their assigned tasks. What they say offers insights into the students' beliefs about the target language they are learning and using, and reflects the cognitive processes they use to...

This article documents the importance of collaborative dialogue as part of the process of second language learning. The stimulus for the dialogue we discuss in this article was a reformulation of a story written collaboratively in French by Nina and Dara, two adolescent French immersion students. A sociocultural theoretical perspective informs the...

In this article, we examine a subset of collaborative dialogues that occurred in a multistage task where 8 Canadian grade 7 French immersion students worked together in pairs. Each pair wrote a story, noticed differences between their text and a reformulator's revision of that text, and reflected on their noticing. We analyze the transcripts of the...

This case study is about an adult Japanese learner's second language learning through her teacher's recasts in an EFL classroom in Japan. We first examined by videotaping the class how recasts were provided in the theme-based EFL classroom. Then we inves-tigated the relationship between the student's awareness of recast feedback and her L2 learning...

From the theoretical perspective of a sociocultural theory of mind, cognition and knowledge are dialogically constructed. Embedded in this theoretical framework, this chapter reviews research studies in which peer-peer dialogue is linked to second language learning as students engage in writing, speaking, listening and reading activities. The revie...

In French immersion programs, it is important to integrate the teaching of language and content. One way in which this can be accomplished is through the use of tasks which, using content-relevant material, encourage students to focus on language form. In this paper, tasks which engage students in collaborative writing and therefore in talking abou...

In this article one aspect of the many interfaces between second language (L2) learning and L2 testing is examined. The aspect that is examined is the oral interaction - the dialogue - that occurs within small groups. Discussed from within a sociocultural theory of mind, the point is made that, in a group, performance is jointly constructed and dis...

In this article one aspect of the many interfaces between second language (L2) learning and L2 testing is examined. The aspect that is examined is the oral interaction - the dialogue - that occurs within small groups. Discussed from within a sociocultural theory of mind, the point is made that, in a group, performance is jointly constructed and dis...

This book brings together a series of empirical studies into the use of pedagogical tasks for second language learning, with a view to better understanding the structure of tasks, their impact on students, and their use by teachers. This edited volume starts with an introduction to the background and key issues in the topic area. Each section begin...

Grade eight French immersion students worked in pairs to complete one of two tasks (jigsaw or dictogloss) based on the same story, both involving the production of a written narrative. Before completing one of these tasks requiring them to reconstruct and write a story, either from visual (jigsaw task) or from auditory (dictogloss task) stimuli, tw...

The present article focuses on the uses of the first language (L1) made by 22 pairs of grade 8 French immersion students as they complete one of two different tasks: a dictogloss and a jigsaw. The outcome of each task is a story written by each student pair. We propose a coding scheme for the uses made of the L1, exemplify them, and report on explo...

This study examined whether negotiated help provided within the learner's zone of proximal development (ZPD) is more effective than help provided randomly and irrespective of the learner's ZPD. Data were collected during tutorial sessions on writing English compositions by two Korean learners of English. Qualitative and quantitative components of t...

This review chapter addresses two questions: What has the recent research conducted in French immersion programs in Canada contributed to our understanding of second language acquisition (SLA)? What has it contributed to the broader field of applied linguistics? In this chapter, I also consider briefly what the research contributions of the coming...

This article provides support for a theoretical orientation toward viewing dialogue as both a means of communication and a cognitive tool. Data to support this position come from an analysis of the language‐related episodes isolated in the dialogue of two grade 8 French immersion students as they carry out a jigsaw task. During the task, the studen...

The wide range of languages and purposes now served by immersion worldwide is illustrated by case studies of thirteen programs. Immersion, a relatively new approach to bilingual education, originated in Canada. It uses the target language as a medium of instruction in order to achieve "additive bilingualism" -- a high level of second language profi...

The wide range of languages and purposes now served by immersion worldwide is illustrated by case studies of thirteen programs. Immersion, a relatively new approach to bilingual education, originated in Canada. It uses the target language as a medium of instruction in order to achieve "additive bilingualism" -- a high level of second language profi...

There are approximately 300,000 students currently enrolled in elementary or secondary French immersion programs in Canada (OCOL, 1996). Most of these students are from English-speaking homes yet the medium of instruction for much of their academic instruction is French. Programs differ according to the age students enter the program and according...

There have been few descriptive studies of vocabulary teaching in second language classrooms, and only two in a French immersion setting (Swain & Carroll, 1987; Wright, 1993). Both involved descriptions of vocabulary teaching at a single grade level in multiple classrooms in an attempt to provide an overview of lexical instruction. In this paper we...

This paper analyses the immersion system of education that has now been practised in Canada for over 25 years. It first describes the immersion system, examining findings from evaluation and research, and then provides a retrospective account of how immersion education in Canada has progressed from its original format to its present status. This de...

Observations in immersion classrooms suggest that there is considerable content teaching that occurs where little or no attention is paid to students' target language use. Similarly, much language teaching in immersion is done in the absence of meaningful context. This article focuses on research that addresses ways of integrating content and langu...

This paper argues, and provides data to support the argument, that in producing an L2 learners will on occasion become aware of (i.e. notice) a linguistic problem. Noticing a problem can 'push' learners to modify their output. In doing so, learners may sometimes be forced into a move syntactic processing mode than might occur in comprehension. Thus...

This paper cites observational and interview evidence indicating that immersion students in the U.S. and Canada increasingly avoid using their second language in peer‐peer interactions as they move into higher primary grade levels. Systematic research is called for to explore this reported phenomenon. It is suggested that the phenomenon is actually...

In this article the emotive, social aspects of learning ESL in small group settings are explored. The feelings and beliefs ofone learner, an adult Japanese woman, are captured as she reflects on her classroom experiences. It is argued that her conscious reflection about her negative emotions and their sources allowed her to act on them, resulting i...

This paper presents data of 13 and 14 year old intermediate and advanced learners of French working collaboratively to complete a text reconstruction task. The task was designed to focus the students’ attention and discussion on the form of the message they were constructing. It was hypothesised that this kind of opportunity to produce language wou...

In this paper we argue that assumptions which underlie the successful implementation of early immersion education may not be valid for late immersion education. In particular, assumptions about the curriculum that hold for early immersion (e.g. that the same content can be covered) and the pedagogy (e.g. that there is no place for the use of the L1...

As a person who has been actively involved in research in French immersion education for approximately two decades, I am frequently told "immersion anecdotes" which often serve to provide a possible explanation for our research results. I wish now that I had kept a file of those anecdotes: They have been rich in description and detail, and are uniq...

Part 1 Applied linguists in historical perspective: relationships between linguistics and applied linguistics - some Danish examples, Frans Gregersen early language transfer experimental thought, Larry Selinker some items on the hidden agenda of second/foreign language acquistion, Robert Phillipson British applied linguistics - the conbribution of...

The relative effects of various types of negative feedback on the acquisition of the English dative alternation by 100 adult Spanish-speaking learners of English as a second language were investigated. Our objective was to determine empirically whether feedback can help learners learn the appropriate abstract constraints on an overgeneral rule. All...

This article questions the relevance of the notion of reliability as internal consistency in tests of communicative language proficiency and suggests alternative criteria for judging the quality of communicative tests. Attempts to establish reliability for a set of oral tasks on sociolinguistic performance and a set of written tasks on grammatical...

This article compares the self-assessments of French proficiency made by approximately 500 Grade 8 students in two different French immersion programs (‘early’ and ‘middle’) in Toronto, Canada. Two self-assessment benchmarks are used: the perceived language proficiency of francophone peers and the difficulty represented by specific everyday tasks i...

This study looked at the effects of feedback (explicit correction) on the learning of morphological generalizations in an experimental setting. Subjects Were 79 adult native speakers of English with intermediate (39) and advanced (40) levels of proficiency in French. All subjects were individually trained on two rules of French suffixation. Experim...

A discussion of past and future research on immersion instruction focuses on the following areas: product variables, teaching and learning processes, and teacher education. It is found that the "product" emphasis of research in the 1980s has shifted to encompass administrative, instructional, testing, and program design issues. (91 references) (Aut...

This text presents the findings of a major investigation of second language proficiency in various groups of school-aged learners. It invites a frank appraisal of the research from an outside panel of experts. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are the subject of a lively debate focused on three main research issues: the nature...

This text presents the findings of a major investigation of second language proficiency in various groups of school-aged learners. It invites a frank appraisal of the research from an outside panel of experts. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are the subject of a lively debate focused on three main research issues: the nature...

This text presents the findings of a major investigation of second language proficiency in various groups of school-aged learners. It invites a frank appraisal of the research from an outside panel of experts. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are the subject of a lively debate focused on three main research issues: the nature...

This paper examines the effect of mother tongue literacy on third language learning in an English/French bilingual programme in Toronto. Subjects were eighth grade students who had acquired a Heritage Language at home and who had enrolled in an English‐medium programme up to grade 4. All were literate in English on entry to the bilingual programme...

Internationally recognized experts in second language research were asked to provide anecdotes documenting memorable incidents where something had gone awry in their research. The anecdotes proved to emphasize problems of a technical, conceptual, or political nature. Fifteen anecdotes representing these three kinds of problems are presented. In com...

Several research and evaluation studies completed in bilingual education programs for language minority children in Canada are presented to support the claim that heritage, or first, language (HL) literacy plays an important role in the acquisition of a third language. A study completed by the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education investigated...

Bilingual and unilingual students in a grade‐eight English‐French bilingual programme in Ontario were compared on measures of French proficiency. Forty‐seven students were selected on the basis of their first language: English, Italian or a non‐Romance language. French proficiency was measured using two written cloze tests and two oral story‐tellin...