Max Frenzel

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Verified

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• Dr. rer. nat.
• Group Leader at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf

While a significant amount of analytical data on trace and minor element concentrations in sphalerite has been collected over the last six decades, no meta-analysis of this data has ever been conducted. In this study, the results of such an analysis are presented. While the study focusses on Ga, Ge and In, data for six other elements (Ag, Cd, Co, C...

There are considerable concerns about the supply security of certain high-tech elements produced as by-products. To determine in how far these concerns are justified by the actual availability of these elements, we compare the supply potentials for three particularly relevant examples – gallium, germanium and indium – to current and historic produc...

Many by-product metals are classified as critical. However, they are only of marginal interest to many mining companies and are rarely part of detailed resource statements or geometallurgical assessments. As a result, there is a general lack of reliable quantitative data on the mineralogy and spatial distribution of these metals in ore deposits – h...

Modern analytical techniques used in the minerals processing industry can provide detailed characterization data at the particle level. However, process models that make full use of this information are currently not available, limiting the usefulness of these extensive datasets. This contribution addresses this issue. It presents a novel particle-...

Recent years have seen a sharp increase in the generation and use of mineral trace-element data in geological research. This is largely due to the advent of rapid and affordable laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass-spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). However, while much new data is being generated and published, relatively little work has been done...

Editor’s note: The aim of the Geology and Mining series is to introduce early career professionals and students to various aspects of mineral exploration, development, and mining in order to share the experiences and insight of each author on the myriad of topics involved with the mineral industry and the ways in which geoscientists contribute to e...

Mineral resources are essential for reaching net-zero ambitions by 2050. There is a rising diversity of metals in electricity generation and storage technologies, as well as for mobility technologies. However, little is known about the future supply of minor elements historically mined in low volumes such as indium, tellurium, germanium, or tantalu...

There has been considerable recent controversy whether current and new lithium mines will be able to supply the rapidly growing needs of the electromobility transition. Mineral exploration projects are typically active for many years, and only some become operational mines. From exploration to production, the projects go through several stages of c...

Mostly produced as a by-product of zinc (Zn) mining, cadmium (Cd) is used in solar photovoltaic cells, battery storage, alloys, pigments, plating, and in nuclear reactors. However, it is also a regulated toxic substance with a long history of environmental and health impacts. As the mining of both Zn and Cd will need to increase to support the glob...

The reprocessing of tailings storage facilities (TSFs) is highly relevant given the potential to increase metal production and reduce environmental issues. Yet, in these TSFs, minerals are often contained within fine and non-liberated particles, which not only pose a challenge to their efficient concentration but also to forecasting the outcome of...

The Spremberg-Graustein-Schleife deposit is part of the Kupferschiefer district in the southern Permian Basin and comprises stratabound copper, silver, and other valuable and critical metals in mineralized rocks hosted by pre-Zechstein sandstones, Kupferschiefer, and Zechstein carbonates. Due to the significant exploration potential across the sout...

Tailings generated during ore processing may host significant residual contents of valuable commodities, including critical metals. The particle properties of the tailings, such as mineralogy, particle size, and the surface liberation of ore minerals, strongly control processing behaviour. This study explores a novel combination of methods for inco...

Germanium (Ge) is a critical raw material for emerging high-tech and green industries, resulting in considerable recent interest to understand its distribution and geochemical behavior in ore deposits. In this contribution, the distribution of Ge and related trace elements in the Fule Pb-Zn(-Ge) deposit, South China, is investigated to reveal the d...

The Irish Orefield is characterised by the presence of both Zn-Pb- and Cu-Ni-As-rich deposits, prospects, and orebodies in similar structural and stratigraphic positions. However, the genetic relationships between these mineralisation types are still debated. In this article, we present new mineralogical, paragenetic, and mineral-chemical observati...

Geometallurgy is an interdisciplinary research field concerned with the planning, monitoring, and optimisation of mineral resource extraction and beneficiation. Geometallurgy relies on a quantitative understanding of primary resource characteristics such as mineralogical composition and texture, the spatial distribution and variability of these cha...

Mineral processing encompasses the series of operations used to first liberate the valuable minerals in an ore by comminution, and then separate the resulting particles by means of their geometric, compositional, and physical properties. From a geometallurgical perspective, it is fundamental to understand how ore textures influence the generation o...

To maximise the value of a mining operation and minimise its environmental and social impacts, all processes—from the ore deposit to the final product and waste streams—should be optimised together. However, mining and metallurgical processes are inherently variable and uncertain due to the natural heterogeneity of ore deposits and the limited info...

With the increasing demand for metalliferous and mineral raw materials and the consequent depletion of the global natural resource base, the possible utilization of secondary raw material sources is receiving more and more attention. In the present study, we present results from a detailed vanadium deportment study of three basic oxygen furnace sla...

The northeastern Hunan Province hosts numerous hydrothermal Pb-Zn(-Cu-Co) polymetallic deposits. As a representative example, the Jingchong Cu-Co-Pb-Zn deposit is characterized by the lower Cu-Co and upper Pb-Zn mineralization, whereas little is known about Pb-Zn mineralization. In this study, three generations of sphalerite were identified based o...

Recent years have seen a sharp increase in the generation and use of mineral trace-element data in geological research. However, while much new data is being generated and published, relatively little work has been done to develop appropriate methods for statistical analysis and interpretation. Several characteristic features of mineral trace-eleme...

Indonesian laterite deposits are a major source of Ni and Co. Here, we present new geological data on the Sebuku laterites (SE Kalimantan, Indonesia), with a resource of ~390 Mt at 42.5 wt.% Fe, 0.9 wt.% Ni, and 0.15 wt.% Co. The deposits are mostly limonitic, oxide-dominated Fe-Ni-Co-rich horizons, which formed by weathering of Jurassic-Cretaceous...

The mining industry generates large amounts of tailings every year. The most common destination for the tailings is deposition in tailings storage facilities (TSFs), which can have enormous dimensions. The management and storage of such large volumes of material pose many challenges in terms of dam stability and immobilization of hazardous contamin...

The management of mine tailings presents a global challenge. Re-mining of tailings to recover remaining metals and other valuable constituents could play a crucial role in reducing the volume of stored tailings. To assess the resource potential of tailings storage facilities, 3D resource models must be constructed. This is not straightforward owing...

The hydrothermal Jingchong Cu-Co-Pb-Zn-vein-type deposit is located in the northeastern Hunan Province, South China. Sphalerite, the most significant ore mineral in Pb-Zn mineralization, is divided into three generations based on texture and composition. Euhedral SphI is characterized by oscillatory zoning of brown alternating with dark zones that...

Sulfidic mine waste usually contains elevated amounts of valuable and hazardous metal(loid)s, which may pose environmental risks but can also provide opportunities for resource recovery. Reprocessing of mine waste can offer both economic and environmental benefits by supplying some of the ever-growing global demand for valuable metals, as well as r...

The transition towards renewable energy requires increasing quantities of nonfuel mineral commodities, including tellurium used in certain photovoltaics. While demand for tellurium may increase markedly, the potential to increase tellurium supply is not well-understood. In this analysis, we estimate the quantity of tellurium contained in anode slim...

The Gorno mining district (Northern Italy) is an example of the Alpine subclass of Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits. It consists of stratabound Zn-Pb-Ag-F-Ba deposits hosted in carbonate-rich sediments, extending for over ~600 km2 in the Lombardian Alps. Here, a complex series of dolomitization, silicification, brecciation, dissolution, and c...

Here, we present in situ U–Pb laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) ages of andradite-grossular garnet from four magmatic-hydrothermal polymetallic skarn prospects in the Schwarzenberg District, Erzgebirge (Germany), located in the internal zone of the Variscan Orogenic Belt. Within the geochronological framework o...

Tailings deposits pose a significant threat to the environment and/or contain residual metal contents that may be of economic interest. The mineralogical and textural properties of the tailings dictate both processing behaviour and potential for acid mine drainage. Automated Scanning Electron Microscope-based image analyses enable valuable quantita...

The exploitation of mine waste materials as secondary resources requires in-depth mineralogical analyses, with metal deportment being of particular relevance for metal recovery. Using a combination of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)-based Mineral Liberation Analyser (MLA) and Electron Probe Micro-Analyser (EPMA) methods, the deportment of le...

Difficulties in dating Mississippi Valley–type (MVT) mineral deposits and the often closely associated dolomitization have led to controversy regarding their origin. We report the first radiometric ages for the Gorno mining district in northern Italy, an example of the Alpine subclass of MVT deposits. U-Pb ages of hydrothermal carbonates pre- and p...

Editor’s note: The aim of the Geology and Mining series is to introduce early career professionals and students to various aspects of mineral exploration, development, and mining in order to share the experiences and insight of each author on the myriad of topics involved with the mineral industry and the ways in which geoscientists contribute to e...

Physical separation processes are best understood in terms of the behaviour of individual ore particles. Yet, while different empirical particle-based separation modelling approaches have been developed, their predictive performance has never been tested under variable process conditions. Here, we investigated the predictive performance of a state-...

Resource estimates are crucial to assess the economic potential of tailings storage facilities (TSF) for re-mining and the extraction of critical raw materials. However, a lack of consensus exists on best practices in sampling for this purpose. This study aims to address this gap by assessing different sampling schemes for the resource classificati...

Deportment data is essential for the planning of mining and minerals processing operations. This need is particularly tangible for deposits of noble metals, such as gold and silver. Therefore, the current paucity of published gold and silver deportment data for individual ore deposits and districts-and the concomitant lack of understanding how this...

Hydrothermal dolostones are often associated with Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) ore deposits. Both are of major economic importance and are genetically related to hydrothermal fluid flow through large volumes of rock. The difficulty to constrain the spatio-temporal relationships of dolomitization and mineralization has generated controversy concern...

Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and electron-probe microanalysis were used to investigate the trace-element contents of sphalerite, chalcopyrite and pyrite from the Plaka Pb-Zn-Ag deposit. Using petrographic observations, the analytical results could be linked to the temporal evolution of the Plaka ore-forming system. Sp...

The tailings of industrial mineral production are a major environmental and financial burden for mining operations. Because most historic and current beneficiation plants extract only one – or few – commodities contained in the ore, tailings dams should be regarded as anthropogenic ore deposits, i.e., potential sources of raw materials. Their recov...

Situated in the western Erzgebirge metallogenetic province (Vogtland, Germany), the Eichigt prospect is associated with several quartz-Mn-Fe-oxyhydroxide veins that are exposed at surface. Bulk-rock geochemical assays of vein material yield high concentrations of Li (0.6-4.1 kg/t), Co (0.6-14.7 kg/t), and Ni (0.2-2.8 kg/t), as well as significant q...

Studies of flotation kinetics are essential for understanding, predicting, and optimizing the selective recovery of minerals and metals through flotation. Recently, much effort has been made to use intrinsic ore properties to model flotation behavior. Particle-based characterization methods, e.g. SEM-based image analysis, have enabled much of this...

The Pefka Cu-Au-Te-In-Se and nearby St Philippos Pb-Zn-Bi-Sn-Ge-Ga-In vein- and breccia-type deposits in western Thrace, Greece, display strong similarities, but also differences in terms of mineralization style, ore mineralogy, and chemistry, and host rock compositions. The Pefka mineralization consists of two crosscutting vein systems with high s...

Scanning electron microscope-based automated mineralogy studies are readily associated with quantitative results, providing one of the foundations of geometallurgical studies. Despite the importance of quantitative data for such studies, and efforts to reduce statistical errors, the reporting of uncertainties is rare. This contribution illustrates...

Scanning electron microscope-based automated mineralogy studies are readily associated with quantitative results, providing one of the foundations of geometallurgical studies. Despite the importance of quantitative data for such studies, and efforts to reduce statistical errors, the reporting of uncertainties is rare. This contribution illustrates...

The strata-bound, carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn-Ag (± fluorite ± barite) deposits of the Gorno mining district extend over ~600 km2 in the Orobic Alps (Lombardy, Northern Italy). Here, the Lower Carnian stratigraphic succession experienced a complex diagenetic evolution, resulting in variable styles of alteration of host rocks and sulfide mineralization....

Europe´s major Sn and W resources are hosted by magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits of the Variscan Belt: e.g. in Cornwall, the Erzgebirge, the Iberian Massif, and the French Massif Central. In the Erzgebirge, several major skarn bodies are located in the Schwarzenberg district (12 x 15 km). Although recent geochronological data relates (skarn) ore-...

The Freiberg district hosts one of the largest series of epithermal polymetallic vein deposits in Europe. The availability of a systematic collection of historical samples provides an excellent opportunity to study the anatomy of these epithermal systems. Detailed petrographic investigations, geochemical analyses, and fluid inclusion studies were c...

The Waschleithe skarn is situated in the northern sector of the Schwarzenberg District in the western Erzgebirge (Germany), a district which hosts several large polymetallic skarn deposits. The Waschleithe is a Zn-dominant skarn comprising abundant dark Mn-rich hedenbergite, minor grandite garnet and magnetite related to the prograde stage, as well...

The Gorevskoe Pb-Zn-Ag mine is currently the largest producer of Pb and Zn in Russia, exploiting one of the largest sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits worldwide. Despite its size and economic importance, the Gorevskoe deposit remains poorly understood. It is located on the western margin of the Siberian craton within the Yenisei Ridge, a Neoproterozoic...

The integration of single-particle data and machine learning functionality into a particle-tracking framework has shown great potential in predicting and understanding the mineral processing behavior of individual particles in mineral beneficiation systems under fixed process conditions. So far, only a few studies have addressed the optimization of...

Flotation kinetic studies are essential for predicting, understanding, and optimizing the selective recovery of an ore through flotation. Recently, much effort has been put into incorporating intrinsic ore properties in the understanding of their flotation behavior. Particle-based characterization systems (e.g. automated mineralogy) drove much of t...

The 1.49 Ga Norra Kärr complex (Sweden) consists of deformed and metamorphosed peralkaline nepheline syenites that contain eudialyte-group minerals as the major host of high field strength elements and rare earth elements. Earlier studies revealed the presence of distinct generations of eudialyte-group minerals and clinopyroxene of magmatic and met...

The halogens Cl and Br are sensitive indicators for the origin of ore-forming fluids. Here, we use a combination of microchemical and microscopic methods to show that measurable concentrations of these elements commonly occur as atomic-scale substitutions in hydrothermal sphalerite. Furthermore, the Cl/Br ratios of halogen-rich sphalerites are indi...

The Kalgoorlie district in the Archean Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia contains two world-class gold deposits: the giant Golden Mile shear-zone system and the Mt Charlotte quartz-vein stockworks. Mineralization occurs in three styles: (a) Fimiston style is characterized by ankerite-pyrite ± hematite-magnetite-gold replacement, (b) Oroya style o...

For a long time, the mining and minerals processing communities have developed process models based on the bulk chemical compositions of ores and processing products. Recently, the emergence of the geometallurgy field and the advent of new characterization techniques have shifted the focus to mineralogical composition and certain particle-based pro...

The polymetallic veins in the Freiberg district form one of the largest epithermal systems in Europe. It produced over 5600 t of Ag during active mining between 1168 and 1969. Historically, exploration focused on the centre of the district, with peripheral sub-districts exploited only to shallow depth. Recent exploration activity focuses on these p...

The Schwarzenberg district (SD) in the western Erzgebirge comprises a series of polymetallic skarn bodies with significant resource potential for Sn, W, Zn, and In. Skarn mineralisation in the SD is hosted by low- to medium-grade metasedimentary units forming the so-called Schwarzenberg Gneiss Dome (SGD). Recent exploration, mainly for Sn, W, and I...

The Waschleithe skarn located near Schwarzenberg in eastern Germany hosts sub-economic polymetallic W-Zn-Pb-Cu-Fe mineralisation. Its mineralogy is dominated by prograde clinopyroxene and subordinate garnet. The garnet and pyroxene colours of this skarn as well as low garnet/pyroxene ratios are typical for distal skarn settings. Ore minerals (magne...

The Freiberg epithermal system comprises numerous hydrothermal veins with rich Ag-(Au)-Pb-Zn-Cu mineralisation. Even after more than 800 years of extensive mining, substantial resources remain in the northern sub-districts. This area is subject to recent exploration activity. Preliminary petrographic data of two vertical profiles from the northern...

Metal zonation is an important feature of low-temperature carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb deposits. Its origin, however, remains poorly understood. In this article, we use the Lisheen deposit in Ireland as a case study to show how thermodynamic modelling can explain these zonation patterns. Based on input data derived from fluid inclusion studies, bulk ore...

The historic silver mining district of Freiberg (Germany) comprises hydrothermal vein-style mineralization of Permian and Cretaceous age. We compare sphalerite compositions with associated ore-forming fluids and constrain the behavior of critical metals such as In, Ge, and Ga in contrasting hydrothermal environments. Fluid inclusion studies reveal...

Located in the Variscan metallogenetic province, the Freiberg district in Germany is marked by polymetallic and polystadial vein-style mineralization. Important mineralization stages include: Pb-Zn-Cu-Sn-quartz (I), Ag-Sb-carbonate (II), Pb-Zn-Cu-fluorite-barite (III) and Ag-Bi-Co-Ni-As-carbonate (IV) assemblages. Stages (I) to (III) have been of p...

High concentrations of indium (In) and selenium (Se) have been reported in the Neves-Corvo volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit, Portugal. The distribution of these ore metals in the deposit is complex as a result of the combined effects of early ore-forming processes and late tectonometamorphic remobilization. The In and Se contents are higher...

Uni- and multivariate statistical analyses of trace element laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry data for Fe-oxides from banded iron formation (BIF) and BIF-hosted ores in 13 deposits/prospects of the Middleback Ranges, South Australia are presented. The obtained trace element signatures were considered within a petrographic-...

The identification and accurate characterization of discrete grains of rare minerals in sulfide base-metal ores is usually a cumbersome procedure due to the small grain sizes (typically <10 μm) and complex mineral assemblages in the material. In this article, a new strategy for finding and identifying indium minerals, and quantifying their composit...

The past decade has seen a resurgence of interest in the supply security of mineral raw materials. A key to the current debate is the concept of “criticality”. The present article reviews the criticality concept, as well as the methodologies used in its assessment, including a critical evaluation of their validity in view of classical risk theory....

Over the past 10 years, increased interest in the supply security of metal and mineral raw materials has resulted in the compilation of many lists of materials of particular concern. These materials are generally referred to as ‘critical’. They are perceived to be both of high economic importance, as well as subject to high supply risks. Of particu...

Fault rock low-temperature thermochronometry can inform the timing, temperature, and significance of hydrothermal fluid circulation in fault systems. We demonstrate this with combined hematite (U-Th)/He (He) dating, and sandstone apatite fission-track (AFT) and apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He (He) thermochronometry from fault-related fissures on the G...

By-product availability curves were constructed for the production of gallium from bauxite, sulphidic zinc ores and coal. They were used to assess the nature of the current supply regime, as well as its potential future development. Not only was the current situation found to be firmly in the elastic supply regime for all three raw materials, indic...

The demand for some of the rarer elements in the Earth's crust, mostly from high-tech applications, is increasing rapidly. Many of these elements are produced exclusively as by-products resulting in potentially significant supply limitations. In this article, a general method for the assessment of the supply potential of such elements is developed...

Hematite-calcite fissure fills on the Gower Peninsula, Wales, preserve evidence of faulting, mineralization, and multiple fluid flow events. Fissures are associated with dilational strike-slip faults in early Carboniferous limestone and contain locally brecciated hematite, calcite, and red sediment. Hematite is macroscopically botryoidal, but lobes...

The world-class volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit of Neves-Corvo, Portugal, is one of the largest and richest in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) [1]. Besides its size, other notable features include its high tin and indium content [2]. Mean concentrations of 30 – 50 ppm indium in whole ore make it an attractive source of this rare high-tech metal...

The demand for some of the rarer elements in the Earth's crust for high-tech applications is increasing rapidly. Many of these elements are produced exclusively as by-products resulting in potentially significant supply limitations. However, despite their increasing importance, reliable assessments of these limitations are not readily available. Ga...

Studies of the mineralogical deportment of indium generally focus on the measurement of trace concentrations in major ore minerals. The importance of actual In-minerals such as indite, roquesite and sakuraiite is not usually assessed. This is due to their low abundance and optical similarity to other, more common, sulphide minerals (e.g. sphalerite...