Mark Sweetingham

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Research Scientist at SweetSpot Ag Research

Shifting from a livestock‐based protein diet to a plant‐based protein diet has been proposed as an essential requirement to maintain global food sustainability, which requires increased production of protein‐rich crops for direct human consumption. Meanwhile, the lack of sufficient genetic diversity in crop varieties is an increasing concern for su...

Key message: An ultra-high density genetic map containing 34,574 sequence-defined markers was developed in Lupinus angustifolius. Markers closely linked to nine genes of agronomic traits were identified. A physical map was improved to cover 560.5 Mb genome sequence. Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) is a recently domesticated legume grain crop. In...

Molecular marker-assisted breeding provides an efficient tool to develop improved crop varieties. A major challenge for the broad application of markers in marker-assisted selection is that the marker phenotypes must match plant phenotypes in a wide range of breeding germplasm. In this study, we used the legume crop species Lupinus angustifolius (l...

This study examined the potential of using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to predict the nutrient composition, energy density and the digestible protein and digestible energy values of lupin kernel meals when fed to rainbow trout. A series of 136 lupin kernel meals were assessed for their protein and energy digestibilities using the diet-substit...

Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) is the most recently domesticated crop in major agricultural cultivation. Its seeds are high in protein and dietary fibre, but low in oil and starch. Medical and dietetic studies have shown that consuming lupin-enriched food has significant health benefits. We report the draft assembly from a whole genome shotgun se...

The candidate R gene linked to anthracnose disease resistance in Lupinus angustifolius . (TIF)

Comparison of arginine metabolic pathways in soybean and lupin. Arginase (EC:3.5.3.1) was mapped in the soybean urea pathway, but not mapped in the lupin urea pathway. (TIF)

Gene annotation of the genome sequence assembly of Lupinus angustifolius. The 57,807 annotated genes and their positions in the corresponding scaffolds are listed. (XLSX)

Identification of scaffolds containing seed storage protein genes in Lupinus angustifolius. Storage protein genes showing SNP markers indicating that the scaffold bearing the gene sequences were integrated into the sequence-defined genetic map. (DOCX)

List of the annotated genes on the 4,214 scaffolds integrated on the sequence-defined linkage map of Lupinus angustifolius. (XLSX)

Validation of SNP marker DAFWA213 linked to the R gene Lanr1 conferring resistance to anthracnose disease using Fluidigm SNP genotyping platform. R = presence of the R gene Lanr1, S = absence of R gene Lanr1. Presence or absence of the R gene Lanr1 on cultivars is adapted from You et al. [38]. Genotype A:A = homozygous genotype of the marker DAFWA2...

Blast search of the genome sequence assembly for carbohydrate metabolic genes in Lupinus angustifolius. Genes showing SNP markers indicating that the scaffolds bearing the gene sequence were integrated into the sequenced-defined map. (DOCX)

Comparison of methionine metabolic pathways in soybean and lupin. Homocysteine S-methyltransferase and cystathionine beta-lyase were mapped at the cystein and methionine metabolic pathways in soybean, but not mapped at the cystein and methionine metabolic pathways in lupin. (TIF)

Genetic linkage map of Lupinus angustifolius constructed based on 8,246 sequence-defined molecular markers. SNP markers are named with a prefix of “DAFWA”; and indel markers are named with a prefix of “iDAFWA”. The first nucleotides of the SNPs in parentheses in the RAD reads were from Unicrop, the second nucleotides in parentheses were from Tanjil...

Selection for phomopsis stem blight disease (PSB) resistance is one of the key objectives in lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) breeding programs. A cross was made between cultivar Tanjil (resistant to PSB) and Unicrop (susceptible). The progeny was advanced into F(8) recombinant inbred lines (RILs). The RIL population was phenotyped for PSB disease...

With 2 figures and 2 tables Lupin is a long-day plant, and its flowering time can be affected by prolonged exposure to cold, ambient temperatures and photoperiod. The vernalization response was investigated in three species of lupins, Lupinus albus L., L. luteus L. and L. mutabilis Sweet., under varying vernalization regimes in glasshouse condition...

In the last 30 years, a number of DNA fingerprinting methods such as RFLP, RAPD, AFLP, SSR, DArT, have been extensively used in marker development for molecular plant breeding. However, it remains a daunting task to identify highly polymorphic and closely linked molecular markers for a target trait for molecular marker-assisted selection. The next-...

With 3 tables Lupin anthracnose [caused by Colletotrichum lupini (Bondar) Nirenberg, Feiler & Hagedorn] first occurred in commercial crops in Western Australia (WA) in 1996 and severely affected the lupin industry, particularly in the northern grain belt of WA. Subsequent studies led to the identification of good sources of resistance to the diseas...

With 2 figures and 6 tables Male sterility is described for the first time in lupin crop species Lupinus angustifolius L. and Lupinus luteus L. and is also characterized in the Andean lupin, Lupinus mutabilis Sweet. In L. angustifolius and L. luteus, male-sterile plants were identified in artificially induced mutation populations, while in L. mutab...

With 2 tables Abstract Albus lupin ( Lupinus albus L.) is an important grain legume for fertile and well‐drained loamy soils of Western Australia (WA). WA experiences constant terminal drought and early flowering varieties are essential to avoid the drought stress. Inheritance of flowering time was studied in two breeding populations by examining...

Rhizoctonia solani anastomosis group (AG) 11 causes serious damping-off and hypocotyl rot of lupins (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and is wide-spread in the northern grain-belt of Western Australia. We compared growth of AG-11 to AG-8, which causes bare-patch of grain crops including lupin. AG-11 grew significantly faster than AG-8 on potato dextrose a...

Narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) is a grain legume well-adapted to sandy acid soils in a Mediterranean climate. Improved metribuzin tolerance in lupin cultivars is considered essential to protect crops from herbicide damage in Australia. This paper reports on the inheritance of metribuzin tolerance in two induced mutants Tanjil-AZ-33...

Two experiments were undertaken to examine the digestible value of a range of grain products produced from seed of the pearl lupin Lupinus mutabilis. These products were then evaluated against similar products produced from the lupin species L. angustifolius and L. luteus and solvent-extracted soybean meals. The value-added products were then inclu...

Three separate surveys were carried out in commercial lupin crops in the major lupin growing region of Western Australia in 1986, 1990, and 2004–05. In total, 333 sites were sampled and plants assessed for the incidence and cause of root and hypocotyl rots. Measurements were made of plant density and sowing depth at all sites. In all surveys, root...

Narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) is a grain legume well adapted to sandy soils of a Mediterranean climate and is the major grain legume in Australia. Improved herbicide tolerance of lupin cultivars is now considered as top priority by the industry for effective weed management. This paper reports induced mutation by seed mutagenesis i...

Anthracnose is a major disease of lupins in Western Australia (WA). The disease wiped out the WA albus lupin industry in 1996 and since then, anthracnose resistance has been a major focus for WA lupin breeding. In an endeavour to find a source of resistance to anthracnose, all available germplasm in WA was screened against anthracnose in New Zealan...

Selection for anthracnose disease resistance is one of the top priorities in white lupin (Lupinus albus) breeding programs. A cross was made between a landrace P27174 (resistant to anthracnose) and a cultivar Kiev Mutant (susceptible). The progeny was advanced to F8 recombinant inbred lines (RILs). Disease tests on the RIL population from field tri...

Seeds and plants of wild type Lupinus albus are bitter and contain high level of alkaloids. During domestication, at least three genes conferring low-alkaloid content were identified and incorporated into commercial varieties. Australian lupin breeders exclusively utilize one of these sweetness genes, “pauper”, in all varieties to prevent possible...

Lupin Anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum lupini) first occurred in commercial crops in Western Australia in 1996 and severely affected the lupin industry, particularly in the northern grainbelt of Western Australia. Subsequent studies led to the identification of good sources of resistance to the disease in Lupinus angustifolius and Lupinus albu...

A range of fungicides were evaluated for control of anthracnose (Colletotrichum lupini) in lupin. Glasshouse investigation identified fungicides that reduced disease severity with varying degrees of efficacy. When applied 1d prior to infection, azoxystrobin, chlorothalonil, mancozeb and copper oxychloride fungicides were highly effective. Systemic...

The impact of temperature was assessed on mycelial growth of Colletotrichum lupini on agar and on anthracnose expression in lupin cultivars with varying degrees of resistance. Growth rate of C. lupini was determined at temperatures from 5 to 3°C. Fungal growth was observed at temperatures from 10 to 30°C with maximum growth rate occurring at 25°C....

Anthracnose in lupins, caused by Colletotrichum lupini, was first detected in commercial crops in Western Australia (WA) in 1996. This incursion of an exotic plant pathogen into Australia constituted a major biosecurity threat to the local lupin industry. The disease caught the industry unawares with the majority of cultivars at that time being sus...

Rahman and Gladstones in 1974 reported that L. luteus had a high tolerance to P deficiency when compared with L. angustifolius and L. albus . Bolland (1997) reported the opposite in his findings with L. albus more tolerant than L. angustifolius to P deficiency which in turn was more tolerant than L. luteus. A series of pot trials was conducted with...

Agricultural crops and their wild progenitors are excellent candidates for ecophysiologal research because germplasm collections are often extensive and well described, and in its dissemination the crop may explore new habitats. The advent of high-resolution climate models has greatly improved our capacity to characterise plant habitats, and study...

The role of lupins in agricultural systems has changed dramatically over the millennia and particularly over the last century since they have been domesticated as a grain crop for modern agriculture. Throughout the history of use of lupins their role as a nitrogen fixer and soil health improver has remained central and their nutritional value as a...

A key challenge in marker-assisted selection (MAS) for molecular plant breeding is to develop markers linked to genes of interest which are applicable to multiple breeding populations. In this study representative F2 plants from a cross Mandalup (resistant to anthracnose disease)×Quilinock (susceptible) of Lupinus angustifolius were used in DNA fin...

Necrotrophic pathogens of the cool season food legumes (pea, lentil, chickpea, faba bean and lupin) cause wide spread disease and severe crop losses throughout the world. Environmental conditions play an important role in the development and spread of these diseases. Form of inoculum, inoculum concentration and physiological plant growth stage all...

Rhizoctonia solani anastomosis group (AG) 11 causes serious damping-off and hypocotyl rot of narrow-leafed lupins (Lupinus angustifolius) in the northern grain-belt of Western Australia. R. solani AG-11 produced abundant sclerotia in sand overlaid on potato dextrose agar. Sclerotia were produced in larger numbers in natural Lancelin sand than in Ge...

Resistance to brown spot (BS) and Pleiochaeta root rot (PRR) in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) was assessed on a broad range of breeding lines and cultivars in field trials in Western Australia in 1985 and 1986. Both diseases are caused by Pleiochaeta setosa (Kirchn.) Hughes. Lines were grown in 5m × 1m plots in randomized complete...

This study examined the influence of the alkaloid gramine, when included in diets for rainbow trout. Quinolizidine alkaloids have been suggested as a potential anti-nutritional problem with the use of lupin (Lupinus sp.) meals in aquaculture diets. The findings from the present study show that above a critical threshold, the alkaloid gramine does h...

The severity of brown spot caused by the fungus Pleiochaeta setosa (Kirchn.) Hughes in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) is reduced by improving phosphorus (P) nutrition and using agronomic treatments that extend crop rotation or increase cereal stubble retention. The aim of this work was to investigate the impact of these treatments o...

Tolerance to metribuzin herbicide is an essential agronomic trait for narrow-leafed lupin (L. angustifolius L.) grown in Western Australia (WA), however, metribuzin causes up to 30% yield loss in cv. Tanjil. Tanjil is widely used as a parent in the WA lupin breeding programme to provide anthracnose resistance. Hence, identification of genotypes tol...

Selection for anthracnose disease resistance is one of the major objectives in lupin breeding programs. The aim of this study was to develop a molecular marker linked to a gene conferring anthracnose resistance in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.), which can be widely used for MAS in lupin breeding. A F(8)derived RIL population from a...

A series of experiments was conducted to assess the effect of different levels of initial anthracnose inoculum (as transplanted infected seedlings) on final infection and yield of lupins. The influences of environment and cultivar resistance on anthracnose infection were also examined. Anthracnose infection caused significant yield reduction at a r...

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the most serious disease of lupins (Lupinus spp). A cross was made between cultivars Tanjil (resistant) and Unicrop (susceptible) in narrow-leafed lupin (L. angustifolius). Analysis of disease reaction data on the F2 population and on the resultant F7 recombinant inbred lines suggested that Ta...

Lupin production is a vital part of the farming system on coarse-textured soils throughout Western Australia. The continued viability of the lupin industry was threatened in 1996 by the outbreak of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The use of fungicides as seed dressings was investigated as a potential control for this disease....

The impact of infestation by bluegreen aphid, Acyrthosiphon kondoi, cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora, and/or green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, on grain production of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) and yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus) was assessed at 4 sites in the Western Australian grainbelt. Yield losses caused by naturally occurring aph...

ABSTRACT A spatiotemporal model has been developed to simulate the spread of anthracnose, initiated by infected seed, in a lupin field. The model quantifies the loss of healthy growing points of lupin in all 1-m(2) subunits of a field throughout a growing season. The development of growing points is modeled as a function of temperature using a 1-da...

Two morphological types of Pleiochaeta setosa are described from Australia, the lupin-type (isolates collected from Lupinus spp.), and the serradella-type (isolates collected from Ornithopus spp.). The lupin-type produces smaller conidia (64–70 × 17–19 μm) with 3–5 septa and 2–4 appendages. The terminal appendages are predominantly unbranched (91–1...

The genetics of resistance to Phomopsis stem blight caused by Diaporthe toxica Will., Highet, Gams & Sivasith. in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) was studied in crosses between resistant cv. Merrit, very resistant breeding line 75A:258 and susceptible cv. Unicrop. A non-destructive glasshouse infection test was developed to assess re...

Immunological and biochemical assays were developed for screening for resistance to Diaporthe toxica in individual plants of narrow-leafed lupins (Lupinus angustifolius). The former was an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for measuring phomopsin mycotoxins and the latter gave an estimation of glucoseamine in infected stem pieces. Stems of...

Resistance to phomopsis stem and pod blight, caused by Diaporthe toxica, varies greatly in cultivars of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius). Earlier observations indicated a possible difference in the genetic control of stem and pod resistance, as some cultivars (Gungurru, Myallie, Kalya and Quilinock) were resistant in stems but not in pod...

The genetics of resistance to Phomopsis pod blight caused by Diaporthe toxica in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) was studied in a cross between resistant cv. Tanjil, and susceptible cv. Unicrop. A non-destructive glasshouse test for resistance was developed to assess resistance in F1, F2, and in selfed parent plants. The test involved i...

We report a method of microsatellite-anchored fragment length polymorphisms for DNA fingerprinting. The method combines the concept of AFLP and the microsatellite-anchor primer technique. Genomic DNA was digested by one restriction enzyme MseI. One AFLP adaptor (MseI adaptor) was ligated onto the restriction fragments. DNA fingerprints were produce...

The effect of the fungus Pleiochaeta setosa on grain yield responses of lupins to applications of phosphorus (P) fertiliser (0–40 kg P/ha as triple superphosphate banded 80 mm below seed while sowing at 40 mm) was measured for 4 lupin cultivars that differed in reaction to the pathogen: Lupinus angustifolius cv. Merrit (susceptible), cv. Tallerack...

Twenty-six isolates of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides were isolated from diseased ornamental lupines (Lupinus spp. 'Russell Hybrids') in seven different nurseries in Connecticut from 1996 to 1998. Three isolates from New Hampshire, New York, and Utah were also included. All isolates identified were pathogenic on lupine and vegetatively compatible w...

Almost the entire lupin industry of Western Australia is based on the single species Lupinus angustifolius L. (narrow-leafed lupin), which is very well adapted to coarse-textured, mildly acid soils. However, L. angustifolius is not well suited to the strongly acid sand plain soils along the low rainfall fringe of Western Australia's agricultural ar...

Diaporthe toxica exists as pathotypes, which vary in their relative virulence towards various lupin species. The most widespread narrow-leafed lupin pathotype (A) is present across all regions and is highly virulent on susceptible cultivars of Lupinus angustifolius. By contrast the yellow lupin pathotype (L) is mostly found in wild mono-specific po...

Phosphorus is the major nutrient element deficiency of grain legumes in the south-west of Western Australia. Lupinus angustifolius is the major grain legume grown on the acidic soils in Western Australia. However, L. luteus and L. albus are being researched as possible alternatives because of tolerance to diseases and specific soil type adaptation....

Seed and seedling diseases, root rots, and wilts are caused by a number of soilborne fungi, all of which are facultative saprophytes and can survive in soil for long periods in the absence of a susceptible host. In general, these diseases are serious yield constraints where short rotations or monoculture of legume crops are the rule. Seedling disea...

The lupin (L. cosentinii) was introduced into the State of Western Australia during the 19th century. By the 1950s it had spread through most of the sandplain country of what is known as the Agricultural Area of the State. Many farmers regarded it as a nuisance because of its self-shattering pods and hard seeds, making it a potential contaminant an...

A total of 112 Rhizoctonia isolates were collected from various canola (Brassica napus) growing areas of Western Australia. Pectic enzyme electrophoresis differentiated these isolates into six distinct zymogram groups: R. solani, 54% ZG5 (AG2-1), 8% ZG6 (AG2-1), and 1% ZG9 (AG10); binucleate Rhizoctonia, 12% CZG1 (CAG1), 4% CZG4, and 6% CZG5 (AGK);...

Rhizoctonia solani anastomosis group (AG) 11 causes serious damping-off and hypocotyl rot of lupins (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and is wide-spread in the northern grain-belt of Western Australia. We compared growth of AG-11 to AG-8, which causes bare-patch of grain crops including lupin. AG-11 grew significantly faster than AG-8 on potato dextrose a...

Resistance to Diaporthe toxica in 12 lines of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) was assessed by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Seedlings were inoculated with the pathogen and after 21 days resistance was assessed by counting latent infection structures in epidermal tissue under the microscope. Infected stem piece...

Field experiments at 7 sites over 3 seasons showed that the dicarboximide fungicides iprodione and procymidone could reduce brown spot severity in lupin seedlings when applied as a seed treatment at rates as low as 0.06 g/kg seed. Treatment at previously recommended rates (1.0 g/kg) gave only slightly or no improved disease control. Where either br...

Isolates of Colletotrichum pathogenic on Lupinus spp, were characterised by vegetative compatibility analysis with two vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) being identified. Isolates of Colletotrichum from North America and France belonged to VCG-1 whereas isolates of Colletotrichum collected in Western Australia during an outbreak of anthracnose...

Latent infection and tissue colonization by Diaporthe toxica was examined by light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy in stems, leaves, and petioles of resistant and susceptible narrow-leafed lupins (Lupinus angustifolius). Resistance was observed during the latent phase of the disease as an incompatible reaction between the host and p...

Resistance to Diaporthe toxica in 12 lines of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) was assessed by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Seedlings were inoculated with the pathogen and after 21 days resistance was assessed by counting latent infection structures in epidermal tissue under the microscope. Infected stem piece...

Forty-three Colletotrichum isolates fromLupinus species worldwide are delineated into 3 groups:vegetative compatibility group (VCG)-1 (4 isolates), VCG-2 (37 isolates), andCOL-3 (2 isolates). The 3 groups are readily distinguishable by randomamplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiles. All Australian lupin isolates areVCG-2. VCG-1 and VCG-2 isolates...

A new root disease of narrow-leafed lupins that is common in the northern wheatbelt of Western Australia was found to be caused by a slow-growing binucleate Rhizoctonia sp. with characteristically narrow hyphae (2-4 mu m). The new root disease causes distinct patches of poor growth superficially similar to rhizoctonia bare patch. This root disease...

Resistance to latent infection by Diaporthe toxica was examined in resistant acid susceptible cultivars and breeding lines of Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin or blue lupine). Conidial germination (91 +/- 1% at 3 days after inoculation) or penetration of the cuticle (14 +/- 1% at 3 days and 24 +/- 1% at 5 days) by D. toxica were not affec...

In field experiments in Western Australia, Lupinus albus cv. Kiev Mutant was very susceptible, L. angustifolius cv. Yorrel was susceptible, and L. luteus cv. Motiv 369 was resistant to brown spot caused by Pleiochaeta setosa. The process of leaf infection by P. setosa was examined on these 3 Lupinus species and cultivars. Field infection occurred o...

The term integrated control began to be used in the 1950’s and from it evolved the term integrated pest management (IPM). Initially it was a concept applied mostly to insect control, born by a desire to rationalize pesticide inputs (Kendrick, 1988). The IPM philosophy has grown to imply more than the application of multiple control methods. Disease...

In August 1994 a severe anthracnose was found on Lupinus albus in plots at four sites in Western Australia. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was isolated from lesions on collapsed stems. At one site the disease had spread to adjacent plots of L. albus, L. angustfolius, L. luteus and L. mutabilis. The primary infection was traced to seed lines of L. a...

Isolates of Rhizoctonia solani AG-10 have been collected at low frequency from wheat and barley roots in Washington and Oregon. In Western Australia, AG-10 is collected regularly, but at low frequency, from the roots of cereal, lupin and pasture species. In this study all attempts to induce AG-10 to sporulate were unsuccessful. However, earlier stu...

Over 4250 isolates of R. solani obtained from the cereal growing belt of Western Australia have been characterized using pectic isozyme patterns (zymograms). With few exceptions, all can be placed in one or other of 10 zymogram groups (ZG), four of which (ZG1-1, ZG1-2, ZG1-4, and ZG1-5) have previously been identified as members of anastomosis grou...

Within R. solani AG-8, the cause of rhizoctonia bare patch disease of cereals, legumes and pasture, five zymogram groups have been identified. Evidence is presented that demonstrates the five groups (currently designated ZG1-1, ZG1-2, ZG1-3, ZG1-4 and ZG2) are very stable. These groups have a wide distribution in the cereal growing regions of south...

Brown spot of lupins, initiated by rainsplash of soil-borne spores of the fungus Pleiochaeta setosa, was controlled by cereal stubble mulches. Stubble provided protection for longer in the season than fungicide seed dressing. At 1 site, late season pod infection was reduced by stubble mulch. Disease severity decreased with increasing quantity of st...

Studies of rhizoctonia bare patches in the southern part of the cereal belt of Western Australia indicate that each patch is dominated by an individual pectic zymogram group (ZG) of R. solani AG-8. R. solani was isolated from plants sampled from patches or from wheat seedlings grown in undisturbed soil cores removed from patches. The Rhizoctonia sp...

Control of Pleiochaeta setosa diseases of lupins was compared in 8 field experiments using Rovral (iprodione) and Sumisclex (procymidone) as either seed dressing or fertiliser-applied treatments. Seed-dressing application was more effective than fertiliser application for control of brown spot. Rovral and Sumisclex provided very similar control of...

In paddocks with a history of previous lupin cultivation, propagules of the fungus Pleiochaeta setosa are most concentrated in the top 2 cm of soil and rapidly decline to zero at the base of the tillage layer (10-14 cm). The severity of Pleiochaeta root rot is greatly reduced as sowing depth increases, due to avoidance of the concentrated surface s...

Pleiochaeta setosa, Pythium irregulare, Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. were frequently isolated from root lesions on lupin seedlings growing at 18 locations in the temperate south-west of Western Australia. P. setosa was isolated from all 13 sites where lupins had previously been grown (average isolation frequency 90%) but from none of the 5 si...

The pectic enzymes of 140 isolates of Rhizoctonia-1ike fungi from the Western Australian grainbelt were examined by electrophoresis and found to fall into 11 distinct zymogram groups (ZG). Isolates within a ZG had a similar cultural and morphological appearance and were either all multinucleate or all binucleate. Some isolates from most ZGs sporula...