Mark Skidmore

Michigan State University | MSU · Department of Agricultural, Food and Resource Economics

Extreme heat events stress the body and can result in fatalities, especially for those with underlying health problems. Air pollution is another threat to health and is an important confounder of extreme heat risks. However, previous empirical studies that have addressed the joint health impacts of air pollution and heat rarely considered the endog...

In response to the COVID-19 crisis, decision-makers in countries around the world adopted policies such as lockdowns, mask requirements, and once COVID-19 injections became available, “vaccine” mandates and “vaccine” passports. However, political polarization and differences in risk perceptions in the populous generated strong support for and oppos...

In response to the COVID-19 crisis, decisionmakers in countries around the world adopted policies such as lockdowns, mask requirements, and once vaccines became available, vaccine mandates and vaccine passports. However, political polarization and differences in risk perceptions in the populous generated strong support for and opposition to such me...

Urban blight is a complex problem that has been challenging for cities in the United States “Rust Belt” region for many decades. However, in the wake of the real estate and financial crisis, it is also a growing challenge for urban communities in many states such as California, Arizona, Nevada, and Texas. Detroit was particularly hit hard, where mo...

Update November 2023: This article has been republished in the Science, Public Health Policy and the Law: Skidmore, M. 2023. COVID-19 Illness and Vaccination Experiences in Social Circles Affect COVID-19 Vaccination Decisions. Science, Public Health Policy & the Law 4:208-226. https://www.publichealthpolicyjournal.com/copy-of-clinical-and-transl...

Purpose: Recognizing signs of psychological distress is a critical first step in assisting people who are struggling with poor mental health to access help. However, community-level factors that impact recognition and stigma are underexplored. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between rurality, other community-level vari...

This article examines the G-Fund, which is one of the five funds in the federal government employee retirement Thrift Savings Plan. The G-Fund is held as internal debt by the U.S. Department of Treasury. Our examination shows that the fund balance is exclusively composed of 1-day notes that are redeemed/reissued every business day, generating $55 t...

Background Around the world, policymakers have clearly communicated that COVID-19 vaccination programs need to be accepted by a large proportion of the population to allow life return to normal. However, according to the Center for Disease Control, about 31% of the United States population had not completed the primary vaccination series as of Nove...

This article evaluates the impacts of reductions in residential effective tax rates on homeownership in Detroit, Michigan. The decline in effective tax rates was driven by a citywide reassessment that significantly reduced effective tax rates. These estimates are used to infer the potential impacts of moving from a traditional property tax to a spl...

Fiscal stress is a common condition in shrinking cities such as Detroit. Among the contributing factors, property tax delinquency is a significant consideration due to the unwillingness or inability to pay property taxes. The literature shows that improvement in the quality of public goods and services can increase tax compliance and strengthen the...

Background: Around the world, policymakers have clearly communicated that COVID-19 vaccination programs need to be accepted by a large proportion of the population to allow life return to normal. However, according to the Center for Disease Control, about one third of the United States population is still not fully vaccinated as of June 2022. Aims:...

Objectives: Mental health literacy programs related to agriculture can help enhance skills among agricultural community members and service providers to assist farmers and producers who are experiencing distress. The aim of the current article is to describe an agricultural mental health literacy education-based intervention program offered to USD...

Severe flooding events often cause significant damage to an area, including affecting the local economy, disrupting transportation, and damaging infrastructure. While raw statistics offer some understanding of crop and property-related damages, resulting from large-scale floods, we also need to consider the longer-term impacts and recovery within a...

The North Dakota Cloud Modification Project was established in 1951 to reduce severe hail damage and increase precipitation in specific counties in North Dakota. Every year, participating counties receive cloud seeding treatment during the months of June, July, and August. Although some atmospheric studies have examined the efficacy of the treatmen...

Two significant trends suggest that it will be increasingly important to consider urban resilience to natural disasters in the coming years. First, there is a consensus among most climate scientists that we are experiencing a period of significant and ongoing climate change, and it is expected that there will be an increase in the number and severi...

Over the past 2 decades, China’s local governments have tended to increase revenue through a large number of land sales when experiencing fiscal stress, i.e., generation of land finance revenue. However, this revenue source is inherently unsustainable. This paper examines the impacts of a major tax cut reform in China, namely, the Business Tax to V...

Background: Prescription drug abuse (PDA) disorders continue to contribute to the current American opioid crisis. Within this context, our study seeks to improve understanding about stigma associated with, and symptom recognition of, prescription drug abuse. Aims: Model the stigma and symptom recognition of PDA in the general population. Method...

Farmers and ranchers (agricultural producers) have higher psychological distress and suicide rates than the general population. Poorer mental health status and outcomes among producers are often attributed to the continuously challenging economic, social, and climate-related changes to agriculture as an occupation and industry. This article describ...

Heat waves are the deadliest type of natural hazard among all weather extremes in the United States. Given the observed and anticipated increase in heat risks associated with ongoing climate change, this study examines community vulnerability to extreme heat and the degree to which heat island mitigation (HIM) actions by state/local governments red...

Background: Prescription drug abuse (PDA) disorders continue to contribute to the current American opioid crisis. Within this context, our study seeks to improve understanding about stigma associated with, and symptom recognition of, prescription drug abuse. Aims: Model the stigma and symptom recognition of PDA in the general population. Methods: A...

Background: Prescription drug abuse (PDA) disorders continue to contribute to the current American opioid crisis. Within this context, our study seeks to improve understanding about stigma associated with, and symptom recognition of, prescription drug abuse. Aims: Model the stigma and symptom recognition of PDA in the general population. Methods: A...

Background: Stigma reduction has been identified as a key public health strategy to increase enrollment in behavioral health services. As our understanding about stigma reduction has become more sophisticated, there has been an increased recognition that efforts to reduce stigma must engage the complex relationships between stigma, literacy, and co...

Since 1980, average life expectancy in the United States has increased by roughly five years; however, in recent years it has been declining. At the same time, spatial variation in life expectancy has been growing. To explore reasons for this trend, some researchers have focused on morbidity factors, while others have focused on how mortality trend...

The purpose of this article is to evaluate the degree to which the demolition of low-quality structures affects property tax compliance in Detroit. During the real estate crisis, the rate of property tax delinquency in the city exceeded 50%. The demolition of dilapidated structures could lead to improvements in tax compliance in two ways. The first...

We propose that natural disasters discourage economic development in the short-run by inhibiting entrepreneurship start-up activity, which is largely responsible for job creation and growth. Our findings indicate that natural disaster events decrease start-up activity in the short-run (i.e., 1–2 years) but have no effect beyond that term. Furthermo...

Flooding is the most frequent disaster type among all severe weather events in the United States. Over the 20‐year period from 1996 to 2015, a total of 107,743 floods resulted in 1563 fatalities and over $167 billion in damages. Climate models suggest that the risk of major flooding will increase in the coming years. In this article, we provide new...

We utilise a quasi-natural experiment in local property tax reform arising from a compulsory amalgamation of several local councils in 2010 in Auckland, New Zealand, to form a unitary local authority. The reform involved changes in property taxes (known as ‘Rates’ in New Zealand) including a shift in the local tax base from land-value to capital-va...

Aggregate spending by municipal governments in the United States increased by more than 250 percent between 1972 and 2012, faster than population growth and growth in median household income. Further, other socioeconomic and institutional variables that are typically used to explain changes in local government spending do not fully account for the...

We evaluate the changes in the benefits of the taxable value cap in the property tax in Michigan, stemming from decreases in real-estate values. We find a substantial increase in the dispersion of benefits. Comparing results for 2012 with results for 2008, we find that the tax savings for long-time homeowners were reduced in areas with low and medi...

A global revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT) has occurred over the past few decades, emerging first in industrialized countries and then in developing countries. While researchers have examined many facets of the ICT revolution, relatively little work has systematically examined the degree to which ICT has reduced natural...

In this paper, we examine whether disasters affect social trust levels using South Korean panel data from 2014-2016. We also investigate whether the effects of disasters on social trust differ depending on the type of disaster. We consider four types of disasters: typhoons, heavy rain, heavy snow and strong winds and waves. Our findings show that a...

A global revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT) has occurred over the past few decades, emerging first in industrialized countries and then in developing countries. While researchers have examined many facets of the ICT revolution, relatively little work has systematically examined the degree to which ICT has reduced natural...

This article uses data on 3,788 vacant land sales to explore the pattern of land values in the city of Detroit, Michigan. The analysis provides evidence of a U-shaped land value gradient. Land values are relatively high in and near the central business district (CBD), but the land value gradient is very steep; estimated land values drop precipitous...

The Great Recession of 2008-2009 may have fundamentally altered state-county fiscal relations. The relationship is driven by weak revenue growth at the state and local level, coupled with political efforts to restrain fiscal behavior via tax and expenditure limits. The recession appears to have resulted in a “reset” in the fiscal relations betwee...

We use survey and experimental methods to examine how residents’ risk, loss, and ambiguity aversion are affected by a tornado event. We survey residents of the Oklahoma City area where a 2013 tornado resulted in massive damage and 24 fatalities. Our evaluation shows that risk aversion increased for those who were injured by the tornado. However, pe...

This study examines how individuals' trust levels and patience are affected by a tornado event. Affected and unaffected people were surveyed after a 2013 tornado in Moore, Oklahoma, that resulted in 24 fatalities. Findings suggest that those who self-identified as affected became more trusting in general as well as more trusting of police and fire...

We conduct an analysis of the costs and benefits of public investment in demolishing dilapidated residential housing in Detroit. While we estimate a positive net impact of demolitions on nearby property values, we also calculate a low marginal impact on local property tax collections. Under existing housing market conditions in Detroit, demolition...

Tornadoes are the most frequent of the natural hazards in the United States, causing significant yearly human and economic losses. Given the potential destructive power of tornado events and their largely unpredictable nature, it is important to identify the major determinants of vulnerability. To date, only a limited number of studies have empiric...

We conduct an analysis of the costs and benefits of public investment in demolishing dilapidated residential housing in Detroit. While we estimate a positive net impact of teardowns on nearby property values, we also calculate a low marginal impact on local property tax collections. Under existing housing market conditions in Detroit, demolition co...

Natural and manmade crises impact community-level behavioral health, including mental health and substance use. This article shares findings from a larger project about community behavioral health, relevant to the ongoing water crisis in Flint, Michigan, using data from a larger study, involving monthly surveys of a panel of key informants from Gen...

Background: Vital statistics on the number of, alcohol-induced death (AICD) drug-induced death (DICD), and suicides at the local-level are only available after a substantial lag of up to two years after the events occur. We (1) investigate how well Google Trends search data explain variation in state-level rates in the US, and (2) use this method...

Companion animal overpopulation is a growing problem in the United States. In addition to strays, an average of 324,500 nonhuman animals are relinquished to shelters yearly by their caregivers due to family disruption (divorce, death), foreclosure, economic problems, or minor behavioral issues. As a result, estimates of animals in shelters range fr...

We examine the degree to which assessment practices in the City of Detroit have created substantial inequities in property tax payments across residential properties. Two key contributions of this article include: (1) inequities created by assessment practices are examined in a collapsed real estate market, and (2) quantile regression techniques ar...

This study analyses the linkages between rural-to-rural migration as measured by rural population growth and land-tenure conflict in southwestern Mali. Land-tenure rules in Mali are characterized by legal pluralism, leading to ambiguity about who has legal access to land and thereby increasing land-related conflicts. Data from 69 communes (township...

We examine the degree to which assessment practices in the City of Detroit have created substantial inequities in property tax payments across residential properties. Two key contributions of this article include: (1) inequities created by assessment practices are examined in a collapsed real estate market, and (2) quantile regression techniques ar...

Over the last several decades the world has experienced a revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT). Improved communications has transformed societies, and as we show in this study, has also served to reduce natural disaster vulnerability. Using cross-country data over the 1980-2013 period to estimate the relationship between I...

Despite ongoing debate regarding the effectiveness of tax abatements, Michigan's Industrial Facilities Tax (IFT) abatement program has been widely and extensively used to boost local economic development. In this article, we estimate the effects of industrial property tax abatements on industrial, residential, and commercial property value growth i...

In 1994 the State of Michigan imposed a limit on the growth of property values for tax purposes. The assessment growth cap resulted in the emergence of a differential in effective tax rates between new and long-time property owners. This article examines the degree to which this differential creates a lock-in effect. Using parcel-level data from th...

Economic decline and racial tension have left indelible marks on Detroit and its region. Parallel tracks of recession and race exacerbate and have been exacerbated by Detroit’s political and governing culture and the long-term inability of its leadership to develop a stable governing regime. Over the past 60 years Detroit suffered significant losse...

As the country emerges from the real estate crisis, the City of Detroit, Michigan, continues to struggle, and is currently in the midst of bankruptcy proceedings. Falling property values have led to significant reductions in property tax revenues. In addition, about half of property owners are tax delinquent, resulting in uncollected tax revenues o...

Current property tax policies in Michigan severely constrain the ability of the City of Detroit to raise sufficient revenues, particularly in a weak economy. Almost half of the land area of the city does not contribute to the property tax effort and the valuation of the taxable properties has fallen substantially since the Great Recession. This art...

The effectiveness of gasoline-specific sales-below-cost (SBC) laws designed to limit firms' predatory behavior is yet to be determined. To provide policy makers with conceptual and empirical insights into this issue, the authors propose and empirically test a simultaneous equations model grounded in the structure-conduct-performance framework that...

In this paper we examine the factors that determine the adoption of state economic development incentives in the ethanol industry. We compile data on the implementation dates for subsidies/tax credits for all states for years 1984-2007, a period that covers the complete emergence of the biofuel industry in the United States and that was characteriz...

In this paper we examine the effects of industrial property tax abatements on industrial property value growth using data from a panel of 152 communities in the five counties surrounding Detroit in southeast Michigan over the period 1983 to 2002. We use a spatially lagged X model to account for potential fiscal spillover effects of competitor polic...

In this paper we investigate the long-run relationship between disasters and societal trust. A growing body research suggests that factors such as income inequality, ethnic fractionalization, and religious heritage are important determinants of social capital in general, and trust in particular. We present new cross-country evidence of another impo...

In this reply we offer a response to the Mercer and Reed (2015) replication of Toya and Skidmore (2007). The replication study extends the original work in several important dimensions and is a very useful contribution. Nevertheless, we offer additional evaluation and discussion of the robustness portion of their replication. In particular, we cons...

In recent years, many developing countries have sought to implement more decentralized governmental systems. Despite efforts toward fiscal federalism, assessment of decentralization activity has been hampered by lack of consistent cross-country measures of effectiveness. Since governments play a central role in the management of catastrophic events...

In this paper we examine the degree to which Michigan’s property value assessment growth cap has eroded the tax base and created substantial differences in effective tax rates among residential properties within the City of Detroit. While the analysis focuses on a specific city with significant tax base erosion challenges, it is relevant to other c...

In the United States child adoption costs vary considerably, ranging from no out-of-pocket expense to $50,000 or more. What are the causes for the variability in adoption expenses? We administered a survey to a sample of Michigan adoptive families to link adoptive parent characteristics, child characteristics, and adoption-related expenses and subs...

In this paper, we examine the effects of changes in property tax rates and school spending on residential and business property value growth in southeast Michigan. We use panel data for 152 communities in the five counties surrounding Detroit between the years 1983 and 2002, a period during which state government mandated major changes to school fi...

In this article we examine the relationship between property tax rates and tax base growth in southeast Michigan using data for all 152 communities in the five counties surrounding Detroit over the 1983–2002 period. To address endogeneity, we exploit the adoption of Proposal A in 1994, which resulted in substantial exogenous and differential change...

As the world economy emerges from the real estate and financial crises, economists and policymakers are considering the implications for government finance. One facet of the recession is the precipitous fall in housing values that is expected to have long-lasting effects on local government finance. Throughout the United States and Europe, local of...

In 1994, a limit on the growth of property values for tax purposes was imposed in Michigan. One consequence of the newly imposed assessment growth cap was an emerging differential in tax prices between potential new property owners and long-time property owners. The purpose this article is to examine the impact of this growing tax price differentia...

This paper presents a procedure for generating state-specific time-varying estimates of marginal tax rates (MTRs). Most estimates of MTRs follow a procedure developed byKoesterandKormendi (1989) (K&K). Unfortunately, the time-invariant nature of the K&K estimates precludes their use as explanatory variables in panel data studies with fixed effects....

The purpose of this research is to examine the inter-jurisdictional and dynamic relationships between the use of the tax increment finance development tool and property taxation. Tax increment finance can move large portions of the tax base off the general fund tax rolls. Further, over time there is a reallocation of revenue streams away from the n...

We examine the change in the distribution of property tax payments resulting from Michigan's imposition of a property tax assessment growth cap in 1994. The cap restricts growth in property value for tax purposes to the infl ation rate, for those maintaining continuous ownership. Upon sale, however, the tax base is adjusted to refl ect market value...

This article examines the effects of state economic development incentives in the emerging ethanol industry. We compiled data on ethanol production capacity and subsidies/tax credits for all states for the years 1980–2007, a period that covers the complete emergence of the biofuel industry in the United States. Importantly, this time period was cha...

Using data for all Wisconsin school districts over the 2003/04 through 2006/07 school years, we evaluate the state of Wisconsin's Open Enrollment (inter-district transfer) program to determine which school district characteristics influence parental transfer decisions. To our knowledge, this is the first study of school choice in a public school se...

We use detailed information from Wisconsin municipalities on annexation and tax increment finance (TIF) activity over the period 1990–2003 to determine whether TIF has encouraged annexation. Declaring a recently annexed area a TIF district increases the fiscal benefit of annexation since it allows the municipality to direct the incremental revenue...

Following voter approval of California's Proposition 13, a body of research has attempted to explain referenda outcomes aimed at restricting public sector tax and spending authority. Evaluating the determinants of voter attitudes toward referenda to exceed spending/revenue limits, however, has received little attention. Using data for all Wisconsin...

"We use monthly gasoline price data for all 50 U.S. states over the period 1984-1999 to examine the incidence of state gasoline excise taxes. Our estimation results indicate full shifting of gasoline taxes to the final consumer. In addition, although we find that gasoline retail prices demonstrate asymmetric responses to changes in "gasoline wholes...

A substantial body of theoretical and empirical evidence demonstrates that interregional competition for factors of production leads to convergence of per capita output. Is there an analogous process that leads to convergence of public sector activity? Skidmore et al. develop a model that is consistent with the macroeconomic growth literature, whic...

We use contingent behavior (CB) analysis to examine the potential impacts of a hypothetical change in the clarity of a lake. We collect and use both CB and revealed preference data to estimate a pooled negative binomial count data travel cost model. From this analysis we calculate the consumer surplus per angling party day for our case study lake t...

This research presents a simple procedure for improving state-specific estimates of marginal tax rates (MTR’s). Most research employing MTR’s follows a procedure developed by Koester and Kormendi (K&K, 1987). Unfortunately, the time-invariant nature of the K&K estimates precludes their use as explanatory variables in panel data studies. Further...

In this article, we use data on Wisconsin school referenda over the 1991– 2004 period to examine how changes in education finance affected school referenda activity. Beginning in 1996–1997, state officials in Wisconsin altered the average state share of school costs from about one-half to two-thirds. Because the state equalization aid formula depen...

We use data on all Wisconsin municipalities during the period 1990-2003 to study the effect of tax increment finance (TIF) on economic development. We use appropriate statistical techniques to measure the impact of TIF and control variables on aggregate property values. We also examine the possibility communities that use TIF are self-selected. We...

In this article we present new evidence of cross-border shopping in response to sales taxation. While several instructive studies provide estimates of the cross-border shopping effect, we utilize a unique opportunity to evaluate the effect of a large discrete change in sales tax policy. Using county level data on food sales and sales tax rates for...

We use disaster impact data over time to examine the degree to which the human and economic losses from natural disasters are reduced as economies develop. We find that countries with higher income, higher educational attainment, greater openness, more complete financial systems and smaller government experience fewer losses.

In this article we use the hedonic price model to estimate the effect of a change in water quality on the value of real estate in the lake community of Delavan, Wisconsin. Hedonic techniques show that a $7 million rehabilitation program significantly increased Delavan Lake shoreline property values. Existing research demonstrates that the use of ob...