Luning Liu

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Verified

Luning verified their affiliation via an institutional email.

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• PhD
• Professor at University of Liverpool

Cyanobacterial thylakoid membranes represent the active sites for both photosynthetic and respiratory electron transport. We used high-resolution atomic force microscopy to visualize the native organization and interactions of photosynthetic complexes within the thylakoid membranes from the model cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942. The...

Some enteric bacteria including Salmonella have evolved the propanediol-utilising micro-compartment (Pdu MCP), a specialised proteinaceous organelle that is essential for 1,2-propanediol degradation and enteric pathogenesis. Pdu MCPs are a family of bacterial microcompartments that are self-assembled from hundreds of proteins within the bacterial c...

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are proteinaceous organelles widespread among bacterial phyla. They compartmentalize metabolic enzymes within a selectively permeable shell, and play important roles in CO2 fixation, pathogenesis and microbial ecology. Here we combine X-ray crystallography and high-speed atomic force microscopy to characterize, at...

Significance Cyanobacteria are keystone organisms in global carbon fixation. Their great carbon-assimilation capability arises from a specialized virus-like protein organelle, the carboxysome, which comprises hundreds of proteins that form a shell to encapsulate the CO 2 -fixing enzymes Rubisco and carbonic anhydrase. How do these proteins self-ass...

The thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria form a complex intracellular membrane system with a distinctive proteome. The sites of biogenesis of thylakoid proteins remain uncertain, as do the signals that direct thylakoid membrane-integral proteins to the thylakoids rather than to the plasma membrane. Here, we address these questions by using fluoresc...

Photosynthetic reaction center‐light harvesting 1 (RC–LH1) core supercomplexes are essential for energy capture and electron transport in purple bacteria. Rhodospirillum rubrum , a model organism for bacterial photosynthesis, features an RC–LH1 architecture with a closed LH1 ring and lacks the peripheral LH2 antenna in the photosynthetic membranes....

Excessive symmetry in cryo-EM data processing can distort key structural details of bacterial microcompartments, highlighting the importance of balanced symmetry for accurate structural insights.

Synthetic nano- and microparticles have become essential tools in biotechnology. Protein-based compartments offer distinct advantages over synthetic particles, such as biodegradability and biocompatibility, but their development is still in its infancy. Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are protein-based organelles consisting of a protein shell en...

Although Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme globally, it is inefficient for carbon fixation because of its low turnover rate and limited ability to distinguish CO2 and O2, especially under high O2 conditions. To address these limitations, phytoplankton, including cyanobacteria and algae, have evolved CO2‐concentrating mechanisms (CCM) that involve...

Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic (AAP) bacteria are essential for oceanic carbon cycling. However, the architecture and structural adaptations of their photosynthetic systems to ensure adequate light harvesting, electron transport, and oxidative resilience in oxygen-rich environments remain poorly understood. In this study, we present the 2.4-Å cryo...

Carboxysomes are anabolic bacterial microcompartments that play an essential role in CO2 fixation in cyanobacteria. This self-assembling proteinaceous organelle uses a polyhedral shell constructed by hundreds of shell protein paralogs to encapsulate the key CO2-fixing enzymes Rubisco and carbonic anhydrase. Deciphering the precise arrangement and s...

Haptophyta represents a major taxonomic group, with plastids derived from the primary plastids of red algae. Here, we elucidated the cryoelectron microscopy structure of the photosystem I–light-harvesting complex I (PSI–LHCI) supercomplex from the haptophyte Isochrysis galbana . The PSI core comprises 12 subunits, which have evolved differently fro...

Synthetic photobiocatalysts are promising catalysts for valuable chemical transformations by harnessing solar energy inspired by natural photosynthesis. However, the synergistic integration of all of the components for efficient light harvesting, cascade electron transfer, and efficient biocatalytic reactions presents a formidable challenge. In par...

Rubisco (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) is the central enzyme for conversion of atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules, playing a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. In cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs, Rubisco complexes, together with carbonic anhydrase, are enclosed within specific proteinaceous microcompartments know...

Intracellular compartmentalization enhances biological reactions, crucial for cellular function and survival. An example is the carboxysome, a bacterial microcompartment for CO 2 fixation. The carboxysome uses a polyhedral protein shell made of hexamers, pentamers, and trimers to encapsulate Rubisco, increasing CO 2 levels near Rubisco to enhance c...

The reaction center–light-harvesting complex 1 (RC-LH1) plays an essential role in the primary reactions of bacterial photosynthesis. Here, we present high-resolution structures of native monomeric and dimeric RC-LH1 supercomplexes from Rhodobacter ( Rba. ) blasticus using cryo–electron microscopy. The RC-LH1 monomer is composed of an RC encircled...

Carboxysomes are anabolic bacterial microcompartments that play an essential role in carbon fixation in cyanobacteria. This self-assembling proteinaceous organelle encapsulates the key CO2-fixing enzymes, Rubisco and carbonic anhydrase, using a polyhedral shell constructed by hundreds of shell protein paralogs. Deciphering the precise arrangement a...

Although Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme globally, it is inefficient for carbon fixation because of its low turnover rate and limited ability to distinguish CO2 and O2, especially under high O2 conditions. To address these limitations, phytoplankton, including cyanobacteria and algae, have evolved CO2-concentrating mechanisms (CCM) that involve...

In photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed and transferred to the reaction center, ultimately leading to the reduction of quinone molecules through the electron transfer chain. The oxidation and reduction of quinones generate an electrochemical potential difference used for adenosine triphosphate synthesis. The trafficking of quinone/quinol molecu...

Carboxysomes are proteinaceous organelles featuring icosahedral protein shells that enclose the carbon-fixing enzymes, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (Rubisco), along with carbonic anhydrase. The intrinsically disordered scaffolding protein CsoS2 plays a vital role in the construction of α-carboxysomes through bridging the shell an...

The carboxysome is a natural proteinaceous organelle for carbon fixation in cyanobacteria and chemoautotrophs. It comprises hundreds of protein homologs that self-assemble to form a polyhedral shell structure to sequester cargo enzymes, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and carbonic anhydrases. How these protein components a...

Cryptophytes are ancestral photosynthetic organisms evolved from red algae through secondary endosymbiosis. They have developed alloxanthin-chlorophyll a/c2-binding proteins (ACPs) as light-harvesting complexes (LHCs). The distinctive properties of cryptophytes contribute to efficient oxygenic photosynthesis and underscore the evolutionary relation...

Rubisco (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) is the central enzyme for converting atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules, playing a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. In cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs, Rubisco complexes, along with carbonic anhydrase, are enclosed within specific proteinaceous microcompartments, known as...

Many pathogenic bacteria use proteinaceous ethanolamine-utilization microcompartments (Eut BMCs) to facilitate the catabolism of ethanolamine, an abundant nutrient in the mammalian gut. The ability to metabolize ethanolamine gives pathogens a competitive edge over commensal microbiota which can drive virulence in the inflamed gut. Despite their cri...

Carboxysomes are proteinaceous organelles featuring icosahedral protein shells that enclose the carbon-fixing enzymes, Rubisco, alone with carbonic anhydrase. The intrinsically disordered scaffolding protein CsoS2 plays a vital role in the construction of α-carboxysomes through bridging the shell and cargo enzymes. The N-terminal domain of CsoS2 bi...

Biohybrid photocatalysts are composite materials that combine the efficient light-absorbing properties of synthetic materials with the highly evolved metabolic pathways and self-repair mechanisms of biological systems. Here, we show the potential of conjugated polymers as photosensitizers in biohybrid systems by combining a series of polymer nanopa...

Symbiodinium are the photosynthetic endosymbionts for corals and play a vital role in supplying their coral hosts with photosynthetic products, forming the nutritional foundation for high-yield coral reef ecosystems. Here, we determine the cryo-electron microscopy structure of Symbiodinium photosystem I (PSI) supercomplex with a PSI core composed o...

Cyanobacteria were among the oldest organisms to undertake oxygenic photosynthesis and have an essential impact on the atmosphere and carbon/nitrogen cycles on the planet. The thylakoid membrane of cyanobacteria represents an intricate compartment that houses a variety of multi-component (pigment–)protein complexes, assembly factors, and regulators...

Background Production of relatively low value, bulk commodity chemicals and fuels by microbial species requires a step-change in approach to decrease the capital and operational costs associated with scaled fermentation. The utilisation of the robust and halophilic industrial host organisms of the genus Halomonas could dramatically decrease biomanu...

Carboxysomes are a paradigm of self-assembling proteinaceous organelles found in nature, offering compartmentalisation of enzymes and pathways to enhance carbon fixation. In α-carboxysomes, the disordered linker protein CsoS2 plays an essential role in carboxysome assembly and Rubisco encapsulation. Its mechanism of action, however, is not fully un...

Elucidating the photosynthetic processes that occur within the reaction center-light-harvesting 1 (RC-LH1) supercomplexes from purple bacteria is crucial for uncovering the assembly and functional mechanisms of natural photosynthetic systems and underpinning the development of artificial photosynthesis. Here, we examined excitation energy transfer...

Carboxysomes are a paradigm of self-assembling proteinaceous organelles found in nature, offering compartmentalisation of enzymes and pathways to enhance carbon fixation. In α-carboxysomes, the disordered linker protein CsoS2 plays an essential role in carboxysome assembly and Rubisco encapsulation. Its mechanism of action, however, is not fully un...

Bacterial photosynthesis is essential for sustaining life on Earth as it aids in carbon assimilation, atmospheric composition, and ecosystem maintenance. Many bacteria utilize anoxygenic photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy while producing organic matter. The core machinery of anoxygenic photosynthesis performed by purple photosy...

The growth in world population, climate change, and resource scarcity necessitate a sustainable increase in crop productivity. Photosynthesis in major crops is limited by the inefficiency of the key CO2-fixing enzyme Rubisco, owing to its low carboxylation rate and poor ability to discriminate between CO2 and O2. In cyanobacteria and proteobacteria...

Carboxysomes are proteinaceous bacterial microcompartments that sequester the key enzymes for carbon fixation in cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria. They consist of a virus-like icosahedral shell, encapsulating several enzymes, including ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), responsible for the first step of the Calvin-Benso...

Cryptophyte plastids originated from a red algal ancestor through secondary endosymbiosis. Cryptophyte photosystem I (PSI) associates with transmembrane alloxanthin-chlorophyll a/c proteins (ACPIs) as light-harvesting complexes (LHCs). Here we report the structure of the photosynthetic PSI-ACPI supercomplex from the cryptophyte Chroomonas placoidea...

Protein-protein interface interactions dictate efficient excitation energy transfer from light-harvesting antennas to the photosystem II (PSII) core. In this work, we construct a 1.2 million atom-scale model of plant C 2 S 2-type PSII-LHCII supercomplex and perform microsecond-scale molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore the interactions an...

In purple photosynthetic bacteria, the photochemical reaction center (RC) and light-harvesting complex 1 (LH1) assemble to form monomeric or dimeric RC-LH1 membrane complexes, essential for bacterial photosynthesis. Here, we report a 2.59-Å resolution cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the RC-LH1 supercomplex from Rhodobacter capsulatus...

Braun’s lipoprotein (Lpp) plays a major role in stabilizing the integrity of the cell envelope in Escherichia coli , as it provides a covalent cross-link between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan layer. An important challenge in elucidating the physiological role of Lpp lies in attaining a detailed understanding of its distribution on the pe...

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) performs most of the carbon fixation on Earth. However, plant Rubisco is an intrinsically inefficient enzyme given its low carboxylation rate, representing a major limitation to photosynthesis. Replacing endogenous plant Rubisco with a faster Rubisco is anticipated to enhance crop photosynth...

Bacterial metabolosomes have been discovered for over 50 years. They play essential roles in bacterial metabolism and pathogenesis. In this crystal ball paper, I will discuss the recent advances in the fundamental understanding and synthetic engineering of bacterial metabolosomes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The light-dependent release of oxygen from plants was first discovered in the 1770s by Joseph Priestley and Jan Ingenhousz. More recently, the enzyme-catalyzed pathway of carbon assimilation was characterized by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson in 1950, and since then, photosynthesis has been intensively studied by hundreds and thous...

The carboxysome is a protein-based nanoscale organelle in cyanobacteria and many proteobacteria, which encapsulates the key CO2-fixing enzymes ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and carbonic anhydrase (CA) within a polyhedral protein shell. The intrinsic self-assembly and architectural features of carboxysomes and the semiper...

Efficient solar energy conversion is ensured by the organization, physical association, and physiological coordination of various protein complexes in photosynthetic membranes. Here, we visualize the native architecture and interactions of photosynthetic complexes within the thylakoid membranes from a fast-growing cyanobacterium Synechococcus elong...

Carboxysomes are a family of bacterial microcompartments in cyanobacteria and chemoautotrophs. They encapsulate Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and carbonic anhydrase catalyzing carbon fixation inside a proteinaceous shell. How Rubisco complexes pack within the carboxysomes is unknown. Using cryo-electron tomography, we de...

Bacterial metabolosomes are a family of protein organelles in bacteria. Elucidating how thousands of proteins self-assemble to form functional metabolosomes is essential for understanding their significance in cellular metabolism and pathogenesis. Here we investigate the de novo biogenesis of propanediol-utilization (Pdu) metabolosomes and characte...

The reaction center (RC) and light-harvesting complex 1 (LH1) form a RC–LH1 core supercomplex that is vital for the primary reactions of photosynthesis in purple phototrophic bacteria. Some species possess the dimeric RC–LH1 complex with a transmembrane polypeptide PufX, representing the largest photosynthetic complex in anoxygenic phototrophs. How...

A wide range of bacteria use special protein-based organelles, termed bacterial microcompartments, to encase enzymes and reactions to increase the efficiency of biological processes. As a model bacterial microcompartment, the carboxysome contains a protein shell filled with the primary carbon fixation enzyme Rubisco.

Carboxysomes are a family of bacterial microcompartments in cyanobacteria and chemoautotrophs. It encapsulates carbonic anhydrase and Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) catalysing carbon fixation inside a proteinaceous shell. How Rubisco packs into the carboxysomes is unknown. Using cryo-electron tomography and subtomogram av...

Carboxysomes are proteaceous bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) that sequester the key enzymes for carbon fixation in cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria. They consist of a virus-like icosahedral shell, encapsulating carbonic anhydrase and ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), which catalyses the dehydration of bicarbonate in...

The reaction center (RC) and light-harvesting complex 1 (LH1) form a RC-LH1 core supercomplex that is vital for the primary reactions of photosynthesis in purple photosynthetic bacteria. Some species possess the dimeric RC-LH1 complex with an additional polypeptide PufX, representing the largest photosynthetic complex in anoxygenic phototrophs. How...

Bacterial metabolosomes are a family of protein organelles in bacteria. Elucidating how thousands of proteins self-assemble to form functional metabolosomes is essential for understanding their significance in cellular metabolism and pathogenesis. Here we investigate the de novo biogenesis of propanediol-utilization (Pdu) metabolosomes and characte...

Carboxysomes are anabolic bacterial microcompartments that play an essential role in carbon fixation in cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs. This self-assembling organelle encapsulates the key CO 2 -fixing enzymes, Rubisco, and carbonic anhydrase using a polyhedral protein shell that is constructed by hundreds of shell protein paralogs. The α-ca...

Carboxysomes are a family of bacterial microcompartments (BMCs), present in all cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria, which encapsulate the primary CO2-fixing enzyme, Rubisco, within a virus-like polyhedral protein shell. Carboxysomes provide significantly elevated levels of CO2 around Rubisco to maximize carboxylation and reduce wasteful photores...

The carboxysome is a versatile paradigm of prokaryotic organelles and is a proteinaceous self-assembling microcompartment that plays essential roles in carbon fixation in all cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs. The carboxysome encapsulates the central CO2-fixing enzyme, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), using a polyhedr...

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are self-assembling prokaryotic organelles consisting of a polyhedral proteinaceous shell and encapsulated enzymes that are involved in CO2 fixation or carbon catabolism. Addressing how the hundreds of building components self-assemble to form the metabolically functional organelles and how their structures and fu...

Background QconCATs are quantitative concatamers for proteomic applications that yield stoichiometric quantities of sets of stable isotope-labelled internal standards. However, changing a QconCAT design, for example, to replace poorly performing peptide standards has been a protracted process. Results We report a new approach to the assembly and c...

The light reactions of photosynthesis occur in thylakoid membranes that are densely packed with a series of photosynthetic complexes. The lateral organization and close association of photosynthetic complexes in native thylakoid membranes are vital for efficient light harvesting and energy transduction. Recently, analysis of the interconnections be...

How thylakoid membranes are generated to form a metabolically active membrane network and how thylakoid membranes orchestrate the insertion and localization of protein complexes for efficient electron flux remain elusive. Here, we develop a method to modulate thylakoid biogenesis in the rod-shaped cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 by...

Significance SbtA is a sodium-dependent, high-affinity bicarbonate transporter in the cyanobacterial CO 2 -concentrating mechanism (CCM). The transport activity of SbtA is regulated by SbtB, which is additionally influenced by adenyl nucleotides. We determined the three-dimensional structures of SbtA in complex with SbtB in two different conformati...

The reaction center (RC)−light-harvesting complex 1 (LH1) supercomplex plays a pivotal role in bacterial photosynthesis. Many RC-LH1 complexes integrate an additional protein PufX that is key for bacterial growth and photosynthetic competence. Here, we present a cryo–electron microscopy structure of the RC-LH1-PufX supercomplex from Rhodobacter vel...

How thylakoid membranes are generated to form the metabolically active membrane network and how thylakoid membranes orchestrate the insertion and localization of protein complexes for efficient electron flux remain elusive. Here, we develop a method to modulate thylakoid biogenesis in the rod-shaped cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 b...

We report a new approach to the assembly and construction of QconCATs, quantitative concatamers for proteomic applications that yield stoichiometric quantities of sets of stable isotope-labelled internal standards. The new approach is based on synthetic biology precepts of biobricks, making use of loop assembly to construct larger entities from ind...

Bacterial metabolosomes have been discovered for over 25 years. They play essential roles in bacterial metabolism and pathogenesis. In this crystal ball paper, I will discuss the recent advances in the fundamental understanding and synthetic engineering of bacterial metabolosomes. image

For the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the presence of N -glycosylated proteins on the surface of two flagella is crucial for both cell-cell interaction during mating and flagellar surface adhesion . However, it is not known whether only the presence or also the composition of N -glycans attached to respective proteins is important for...

The N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) modification is the most common internal post-transcriptional modification, with important regulatory effects on RNA export, splicing, stability, and translation. Studies on the m⁶A modifications in plants have focused on Arabidopsis thaliana growth and development. However, A. thaliana is a salt-sensitive and model pla...

Compartmentalization is a ubiquitous building principle in cells, which permits segregation of biological elements and reactions. The carboxysome is a specialized bacterial organelle that encapsulates enzymes into a virus-like protein shell and plays essential roles in photo-synthetic carbon fixation. The naturally designed architecture, semi-perme...

Abstract Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are nanoscale proteinaceous organelles that encapsulate enzymes from the cytoplasm using an icosahedral protein shell that resembles viral capsids. Of particular interest are the carboxysomes (CBs), which sequester the CO2-fixing enzymes ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) to enhance...

Photosynthetic membranes are typically densely packed with proteins, and this is crucial for their function in efficient trapping of light energy. Despite being crowded with protein, the membranes are fluid systems in which proteins and smaller molecules can diffuse. Fluidity is also crucial for photosynthetic function, as it is essential for bioge...

Cell division of Staphylococcus adopts a “popping” mechanism that mediates extremely rapid separation of the septum. Elucidating the structure of the septum is crucial for understanding this exceptional bacterial cell division mechanism. Here, the septum structure of Staphylococcus warneri is extensively characterized using high-speed time-lapse co...

Carboxysomes are the specific CO2-fixing microcompartments in all cyanobacteria. Although it is known that the organization and subcellular localization of carboxysomes are dependent on external light conditions and are highly relevant to their functions, how carboxysome organization and function are actively orchestrated in natural diurnal cycles...

Plant chloroplasts have complex membrane systems. Among these, thylakoids serve as the sites for photosynthesis and photosynthesis-related adaptation. In addition to the photosynthetic membrane complexes and associated molecules, lipids in the thylakoid membranes, are predominantly composed of MGDG (monogalactosyldiacylglycerol), DGDG (digalactosyl...

Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are nanoscale proteinaceous organelles that encapsulate enzymes from the cytoplasm using an icosahedral protein shell that resembles viral capsids. Of particular interest are the carboxysomes (CBs), which sequester the CO2-fixing enzymes ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) to enhance carbon a...

Cyanobacteria are autotrophs whose photosynthetic process is similar to that of higher plants, although the photosynthetic apparatus is slightly different. They have been widely used for decades as model systems for studying the principles of photosynthesis, especially the effects of environmental stress on photosynthetic activities. Salt stress, w...

Cell division of Staphylococcus adopts a “popping” mechanism that mediates extremely rapid separation of the septum. Elucidating the structure of the septum is crucial for understanding this exceptional bacterial cell division mechanism. Here, the septum structure of Staphylococcus warneri is extensively characterized using high-speed time-lapse co...

For the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , the presence of N -glycosylated proteins on the surface of two flagella is crucial for both cell-cell interaction during mating and flagellar surface adhesion. It is unknown whether the composition of N -glycans attached to respective proteins is important for these processes. To this end, we exa...

Carboxysomes are a group of bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) that encapsulate Rubisco and carbonic anhydrase to enhance CO2 fixation in cells. Through self-assembly of hundreds of proteins into a virus-like icosahedral organelle, carboxysomes provide all cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs with the ability to utilise limited environmental CO2...

Purple photosynthetic bacteria are metabolically versatile, anoxygenic phototrophs that produce bacteriochlorophylls a or b and display a wide range of metabolic lifestyles, which are reflected in their diverse range of habitats. Under oxic conditions, energy is derived from aerobic respiration, and the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments, and pig...

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can enhance plant stress resistance by regulating the expression of functional genes. Sweet sorghum is a salt-tolerant energy crop. However, little is known about how lncRNAs in sweet sorghum respond to salt stress. In this study, we identified 126 and 133 differentially expressed lncRNAs in the salt-tolerant M-81E an...

Precise folding of photosynthetic proteins and organization of multicomponent assemblies to form functional entities are fundamental to efficient photosynthetic electron transfer. The bacteriochlorophyll b-producing purple bacterium Blastochloris viridis possesses a simplified photosynthetic apparatus. The light-harvesting (LH) antenna complex surr...

Sweet sorghum is a C4 crop with the characteristic of fast-growth and high-yields. It is a good source for food, feed, fiber, and fuel. On saline land, sweet sorghum can not only survive, but increase its sugar content. Therefore, it is regarded as a potential source for identifying salt-related genes. Here, we review the physiological and biochemi...