Luana C Main

• PhD, UWA
• Associate Professor at Deakin University

The aim of this article is to present case study data that challenges the popular conception that athlete burnout represents the ultimate outcome of overtraining. A young male triathlete (22 yrs) completed a comprehensive training diary, along with the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and the Multi-component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) weekly...

Background Monitoring athlete well-being is essential to guide training and to detect any progression towards negative health outcomes and associated poor performance. Objective (performance, physiological, biochemical) and subjective measures are all options for athlete monitoring. Objective We systematically reviewed objective and subjective meas...

We report the initial validation of a multi-component assessment model for monitoring training distress among athletes. The model combines measures of mood disturbance with measures of perceived stress and symptom intensity. Altogether, 492 athletes completed the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10; Cohen et al., 1983), the 24-item Brunel Mood S...

Resistance training is essential for health and performance and confers many benefits such as increasing skeletal muscle mass, increasing strength and power output, and improving metabolic health. Resistance training is a major component of the physical activity guidelines, yet research in female populations is limited. Recent increases in the prom...

Sleep is important for youth athletes, supporting sport‐related recovery and performance, as well as growth and development. Sleep may be influenced by training factors; therefore, this study aimed to characterise youth athletes' sleep, and examine associations between training load, schedule and frequency, and sleep. Twenty‐six youth basketballers...

Objectives: This study sought to characterize the sleep of youth athletes and investigate relationships between sleep measures and cognitive function. Method: Youth netball athletes (n = 19, age; 16.58 ± 1.26 years), wore an Actigraph wGT3X-BT and completed a daily sleep diary over 8 weeks. Cognitive function was measured every 2 weeks using Inq...

Theoretically, the serial measurement of biomarkers to monitor physiological responses to military training could be used to mitigate musculoskeletal injury risk and better understand the recovery status of personnel. To date, the cost and scalability of these initiatives have impeded their uptake by defence organisations. However, advances in tech...

Objectives Running is one of the most accessible forms of exercise, yet its suitability for adults with chronic low back pain (LBP) is unknown. This study assessed the efficacy and acceptability of running in adults with chronic LBP. Methods This two-arm parallel (1:1) individually randomised controlled trial allocated 40 participants (mean (SD) a...

Functional power-based exercise training can improve physical performance in older adults and cognitive training can improve measures of cognition, but their combined effects on cognition and related risk factors (neurological and inflammatory markers) remains uncertain. This 6-month cluster randomised controlled trial evaluated the effectiveness o...

Background Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) has analgesic/anti-inflammatory properties that may be a suitable alternative to over-the-counter (OTC) non-steroidal analgesics/anti-inflammatories. While OTC pain medications can impair strength training adaptations, the mechanism of action of PEA is distinct from these and it may not negatively affect skele...

BACKGROUND AND AIMS Low back pain is the leading cause of global disability, with lumbar disc pathologies estimated to contribute to up to 40% of cases. Exercise training is an established treatment to reduce pain intensity and disability in individuals with low back pain; however, the effect of exercise training on intervertebral discs is unknown....

Aims: To explore the relationship between nutritional intake, fermentable oligo-, di, monosaccharides and polyols, and carbohydrate malabsorption, with gastrointestinal symptoms during a 56 km trail ultramarathon event and identify differences in nutritional intake between runners with severe and non-severe gastrointestinal symptoms. Methods: Fo...

Objectives The relationship between exercise training variables and clinical outcomes in low back pain (LBP) is unclear. The current study aimed to explore the relationship between exercise training parameters and pain intensity in individuals with chronic LBP. Methods This study is a secondary analysis of a previously reported randomised controll...

Introduction There is strong evidence indicating interactions between sleep and chronic low back pain (CLBP). However, evidence on the effect of exercise training (first-line treatment for CLBP), especially of specific modes of exercise training, on sleep is limited. This study aimed to investigate the effect of two exercise-based interventions (ge...

Background Endurance sports require significant training loads to elicit the desired training effects on an athlete’s body. However, if adequate recovery is not provided, overtraining may occur, with corresponding decrements in performance. As such, there is a need for measures that can be tracked, to monitor athlete adaptation to training loads, a...

Objectives: Decreases in cognitive function impair occupational performance, reduce occupational safety, and increase musculoskeletal injury risk. The aim of this paper was to identify measures that may be used to monitor cognitive function in the warfighter. Design: A rapid review. Methods: A rapid search of Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE,...

Introduction: Decision making in use of force relies on accurate cue identification to inform appropriate response. This research was designed to test the relationship between cue utilisation and performance prior to, and following participation in an urban operations course (UOC). Methods: A total of 37 participants were assessed on cue utilisa...

Background Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics are used frequently by athletes either prophylactically for the prevention of pain, or to accelerate recovery following an injury. However, these types of pain management strategies have been shown to inhibit signalling pathways (e.g., cyclooxygenase-2) that may hinder muscula...

The study aimed to determine if overnight heart rate variability (HRV) is reflective of workload and stress during military training. Measures of cognitive load, perceived exertion, physical activity, nocturnal HRV, cognitive performance and sleep were recorded for a 15-day assessment period in 32 combat engineers. The assessment period consisted o...

Poor intervertebral disc (IVD) health is associated with low back pain (LBP). This 12-week parallel randomised controlled trial will evaluate the efficacy of a progressive interval running programme on IVD health and other clinical outcomes in adults with chronic LBP. Participants will be randomised to either a digitally delivered progressive inter...

Unlabelled: Over a 15-day period, that included an eight-day field trial, the aims of this study were to (1) quantify the physical workload, sleep and subjective well-being of soldiers in training; (2a) Explore relationships between workload and well-being, and (2b) sleep and well-being; (3) Explore relationships between workload, sleep, and well-...

Introduction: Military personnel train and operate in challenging multistressor environments, which can affect hormonal levels, and subsequently compromise performance and recovery. The aims of this project were to evaluate concentrations of cortisol and testosterone and subjective perceptions of stress and recovery across basic military training...

Objective Studies in basic military training (BMT) examining sleep are largely cross-sectional, and do not investigate relationships between sleep, stress, recovery and fatigue. The aims of this study were to (1a) quantify changes in recruits’ sleep quantity and quality over 12 weeks of BMT; (1b) quantify changes in recruits’ perceptions of stress,...

Results of meeting 132 of the IARC Monographs

This study examined sex differences among endurance athletes in pre-race relationships between sleep, and perceived stress and recovery. Thirty-six athletes completed the Short Recovery and Stress Scale, and had sleep monitored via actigraphy, over four consecutive days prior to an ultra-marathon. Overall, compared with males, females had shorter w...

Purpose: Assess and describe the physical demands and changes in subjective wellbeing of recruits completing the 12 week Australian Army Basic Military Training (BMT) course. Methods: Thirty-five recruits (24.8 ± 6.8 y; 177.4 ± 10.1 cm, 75.6 ± 14.7 kg) consented to daily activity monitoring and weekly measures of subjective wellbeing (Multi-comp...

Ensuring a balance between training demands and recovery during basic military training (BMT) is necessary for avoiding maladaptive training responses (e.g., illness or injury). These can lead to delays in training completion and to training attrition. Previously identified predictors of injury and attrition during BMT include demographic and perfo...

Objective: This project aimed to assess the impact of an 8-day military training exercise on cognitive performance, and track its recovery in periods of reduced training load and partially restored sleep. Background: Military personnel often work in challenging multi-stressor environments, where sleep loss is inevitable. Sleep loss can impair mu...

Introduction: Heart rate variability (HRV) has shown sensitivity to the acute stressors experienced by defence personnel. This study examines the suitability of overnight HRV as a repeated measure of allostatic load in defence personnel. Methods: Daily measures of sleep, cognitive load and perceived exertion were reported for the 12-week duratio...

Objective The purpose of this meta-analytic review is to examine the relationship between increased psychological pressure and Use of Force (UOF) behaviours, identifying current training methodologies and effectiveness of transfer of training interventions in high threat-simulated scenarios. Background Data from UOF performance within Law Enforcem...

Objectives Military personnel are required to train and operate in challenging multi-stressor environments, which can affect hormonal levels, and subsequently compromise performance and recovery. The aims of this project were to 1) assess the impact of an eight-day military training exercise on salivary cortisol and testosterone, 2) track the recov...

Objective: To explore a protection motivation theory screening tool for predicting rehabilitation adherence. Design: Analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Setting: An exercise physiology and physiotherapist clinic. Participants: Patients with chronic low back pain (n=40). Interventions: General strength and conditioning (GSC) compared...

Background This study assessed relationships and sex differences between psychological state (recovery, stress, anxiety, and self-confidence) and gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) prior to and during a 56 km ultramarathon running race and identified predictive factors of race GIS. Forty-four (26 males, 18 females) ultramarathon competitors completed...

Background: Female athletes often report higher gastro-intestinal symptoms (GIS) than males during endurance events, but it is currently unknown if differences in nutrition intake are a contributing factor. Aim: To determine sex differences in nutrition intake and GIS at a 56 km ultramarathon race. Methods: Forty-four (n= 18 female) participants of...

Background: Female endurance athletes more frequently report gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) than males. However, the cause of this discrepancy and impact of hormone fluctuations across the menstrual cycle is currently unknown. Aim: To assess differences in exercise, nutrition intake and GIS across phases of the menstrual cycle (menses, follicular...

Background Awareness of the cumulative stress placed on first responders and tactical operators is required to manage acute fatigue, which can impair occupational performance, and may precipitate negative chronic health outcomes. The aim of this review was to investigate the utility of heart rate variability (HRV) to monitor stress and allostatic l...

Adaptation to military operational stress is a complex physiological response that calls upon the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and immune system, to create a delicate balance between anabolism and catabolism and meet the demands of an ever-changing environment. As such, resilience, the ability to withs...

Anecdotal reports within the Caribbean track and field fraternity have revealed that there is a high level of athlete dropout from competitive sport at the junior-elite level, and a poor transition to senior-elite status. Consequently, this qualitative investigation explored the key motives that may have contributed towards the unsuccessful transit...

Purpose Stress, anxiety and physical exertion are all closely linked to well-being, and each can alter immune function. Diminished well-being has been observed during military training, however there is mixed evidence regarding whether concomitant changes in inflammatory markers occur, with these phenomena indicating potential maladaptive responses...

This study examined how objective measures of sleep change across shift-cycles, and the impact of this on sleep quality and fatigue. Forty maritime pilots were recruited from Australian ports. Sleep wake-behaviour (timing and length), and self-reported sleep quality and fatigue, were assessed to determine any impact of roster status and ‘on-call’ s...

Introduction. The Defence Human Sciences Symposium (DHSS) is the principal Australian forum held each year for those interested in the application of human sciences to enhance defence capability. During DHSS 2019 a facilitated Panel Discussion was convened with invited delegates from Army, Navy, Air Force, academia and DST. The discussion focused o...

Problem Statement: Sports coaches work inuncontrollable, complex, and ever-changingenvironments that exertnumerous demands, which together can affect psychological well-being. The stressors faced by sport coaches at varying competitive levels, and the coping methods they employ to mitigate these stressors have received considerable attention in the...

Exercise and spinal manipulative therapy are commonly used for the treatment of chronic low back pain (CLBP) in Australia. Reduction in pain intensity is a common outcome; however, it is only one measure of intervention efficacy in clinical practice. Therefore, we evaluated the effectiveness of two common clinical interventions on physical and self...

This study examined the perceived talent development environment (TDE) of youth track and field athletes within the Caribbean region and explores the relationship with their subjective wellbeing and burnout levels. A sample of 400 Caribbean youth track and field athletes (male = 198, and female = 202; age 13–20 years) participated in this cross-sec...

Caribbean nations stand to benefit significantly from the potential insights that can be gained from the assessment of their athlete talent development environments; which in turn can lead to the formulation of evidence-based strategies and improvements to their sport development pathways. The principal aim of this study was to examine the psychome...

This qualitative investigation sought to explore through a socio-cultural lens the perceived early training and competition environment , and support network of world-class Caribbean track and field athletes and the influence on their sport engagement and progression during early childhood and adolescence. Sixteen world-class track and field athlet...

Background: Research has highlighted the multitude of factors that are negatively associated with coach mental well-being but has failed to investigate how the determinants of mental well-being can affect the coach both positively and negatively. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate levels of mental well-being among sport coaches a...

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the inflammatory response to a 12-hour wildfire suppression shift, in firefighters attending the "Black Saturday" natural disaster. Methods: Thirty-eight male volunteer firefighters provided venous blood samples before and after a 12-hour firefighting shift. Pre- to post-shift changes in pro...

Objectives Exercise can be used as a treatment for depressive symptoms in the general population. However, little is known as to whether exercise has mental health benefits for adults experiencing chronic low back pain (CLBP). The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility of two intervention protocols commonly used in clinical practice for t...

Objectives: Stressful experiences, poor self-rated health, and negative emotional states have been implicated with higher levels of inflammatory markers and lower levels of neurotrophic factors in some healthy adults and clinical populations, but these relationships are unclear in the elderly. This study aimed to identify the associations between...

Purpose Responding to emergency alarms is a daily occurrence for personnel in safety-critical occupations, and is associated with negative health outcomes in this population. The purpose of the present study was to determine the acute inflammatory response to an isolated emergency alarm mobilisation in both day and night conditions. Methods Sixtee...

In the last five years, mental health and wellbeing has attracted greater public, government, and research interest. In sport, athlete mental health and wellbeing has been a focus across all competition levels. The high performance coach responsible for athlete performance, health and wellbeing has not attracted the same attention despite working i...

Emerging research indicates that exercise combined with cognitive training may improve cognitive function in older adults. Typically these programs have incorporated sequential training, where exercise and cognitive training are undertaken separately. However, simultaneous or dual-task training, where cognitive and/or motor training are performed s...

Introduction: Physically demanding occupations may require completion of laborious tasks under sleep restricted, and hot conditions. The stress and fatigue associated with these demands could compromise personnel performance, safety and health. Self-report measures of stress and fatigue are considered effective, practical and cost efficient monitor...

Objective: The aim of this study was to quantify the stress associated with performing maritime pilotage tasks in a high-fidelity simulator. Methods: Eight trainee and 13 maritime pilots completed two simulated pilotage tasks of varying complexity. Salivary cortisol samples were collected pre- and post-simulation for both trials. Heart rate was...

The experience of athletes and practitioners has led to the suggestion that use of an athlete self-report measure (ASRM) may increase an athlete’s self-awareness, satisfaction, motivation, and confidence. This study sought to provide empirical evidence for this assertion by evaluating psychological alterations associated with ASRM use across a dive...

Background: Lower back pain is a global health issue affecting approximately 80% of people at some stage in their life. The current literature suggests that any exercise is beneficial for reducing back pain. However, as pain is a subjective evaluation and physical deficits are evident in low back pain, using it as the sole outcome measure to evalu...

Objective: To examine firefighters' hormonal and immune markers during consecutive days of physical firefighting work performed in hot compared to mild ambient temperatures. Methods: Firefighters completed 3 days of simulated physical firefighting work in either hot (HOT condition; n = 19; 33°C) or mild temperature conditions (CON condition; n =...

Physical work and sleep loss are wildland firefighting demands that elicit psychological and physiological stress responses. Research shows that these responses are statistically related which presents an opportunity to use subjective psychological questionnaires to monitor physiological changes among firefighters; an approach used extensively in s...

Objective: Sleep restriction and physical work are stressors faced by firefighters, yet the combined impact these demands have on firefighters´ physiological and psychological stress responses is poorly understood. This research investigated the effect of sleep restriction across a firefighting deployment on firefighters’ cytokine, cortisol and hea...

The purpose of the present study was to determine the efficacy of the multi-component training distress scale (MTDS), in monitoring swimmers prior to national competition. Twenty-one national-level adolescent swimmers completed eight weeks of testing. Once a week participants completed an 8 × 50 m sprint test, vertical jump test, sit-and-reach test...

This study examined how changes in wildland firefighters' mood relate to cytokine and cortisol levels in response to simulated physical firefighting work and sleep restriction. Firefighters completed 3 days of simulated wildfire suppression work separated by an 8-h (control condition; n = 18) or 4-h sleep opportunity (sleep restriction condition; n...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute physiological stress response to an emergency alarm and mobilization during the day and at night. Sixteen healthy males aged 25 ± 4 years (mean ± SD) spent four consecutive days and nights in a sleep laboratory. This research used a within-participants design with repeated measures for time, al...

Introduction Maritime pilotage is a demanding occupation where pilots are required to perform complex procedures in sometimes unfamiliar working environments. The psychological (e.g., stress) and physical demands (e.g., reduced sleep, boarding, and departing vessels) may over time have a damaging effect on pilots’ physical and mental health. This p...

Athlete self-report measures (ASRM) are a popular method of athlete monitoring in high-performance sports. With increasing recognition and accessibility, ASRM may potentially be utilized by athletes from diverse sport contexts. The purpose of the present study was to improve understanding of ASRM imple-mentation across different sport contexts by o...

Background: Maritime pilotage is a demanding occupation where pilots are required to perform complex procedures in sometimes unfamiliar working environments. These psychological stressors, in addition to the physical demands associated with the role (e.g., reduced sleep, boarding, and departing vessels), may over time have a damaging effect on pil...

The interplay between inflammatory and cortisol responses modulates an appropriate response to a stressor. Exposure to severe stressors, however, may alter the actions and relationships of these responses and contribute to negative health outcomes. Physical work and sleep restriction are two stressors faced by wildland firefighters, yet their influ...

Aim: The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of stress on operator performance by examining expertise in real-world simulated maritime tasks of varying complexity. Design: Eight experienced maritime pilots participated in two real-world simulated maritime navigation tasks of varying complexity, a control (fair weather conditions) and e...

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the effect restricted sleep has on wildland firefighters' acute cytokine levels during 3 days and 2 nights of simulated physical wildfire suppression work. METHODS: Firefighters completed multiple days of physical firefighting work separated by either an 8-h (Control condition; n = 18) or 4-h (Sleep restriction c...

Physical work and sleep restriction are two stressors faced by firefighters, yet the combined impact these demands have on firefighters' acute stress responses is poorly understood. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect firefighting work and sleep restriction have on firefighters' acute cortisol and heart rate (HR) responses dur...

Emergency work can expose personnel to sleep restriction. Inadequate amounts of sleep can negatively affect physiological and psychological stress responses. This review critiqued the emergency service literature (e.g., firefighting, police/ law enforcement, defense forces, ambulance/paramedic personnel) that has investigated the effect of sleep re...

OBJECTIVES Maritime pilotage is a demanding occupation where pilots are required to perform complex procedures in sometimes unfamiliar working environments. In the maritime industry, high-fidelity simulators are beginning to emerge as an alternative form of training. Through repeated practice simulator training may assist in the preparation of trai...

OBJECTIVES Maritime pilotage is a demanding occupation that requires individuals to work long shifts in unfamiliar environments. Previous research has suggested that poor levels of physical fitness, irregular work hours, increasing age, and fatigue may compromise pilotage performance. However there is little evidence of whether these factors are di...

Little is known regarding the symptoms of fatigue that maritime pilots experience during shift work. Moreover, the strategies these individuals use to cope with the onset of fatigue are also unknown. The current study explored the symptoms of fatigue and coping strategies experienced by maritime pilots when on-shift. Fifty maritime pilots were recr...

Monitoring athletic preparation facilitates the evaluation and adjustment of practices to optimize performance outcomes. Self-report measures such as questionnaires and diaries are suggested to be a simple and cost-effective approach to monitoring an athlete's response to training, however their efficacy is dependent on how they are implemented and...

To investigate changes in physiology, performance, and training practices of elite Australian rowers over 6 months. Twenty-one elite rowers (14 males, 7 females) were monitored throughout two phases: Phase 1 (Specific Preparation) and Phase 2 (Domestic Competition). Incremental tests and rowing ergometer time trials over 100 m, 500 m, 2000 m, and 6...

Objectives: This study investigated the effect restricted sleep has on wildland firefighters' acute cytokine levels during 3 days and 2 nights of simulated physical wildfire suppression work. Methods: Firefighters completed multiple days of physical firefighting work separated by either an 8-h (Control condition; n = 18) or 4-h (Sleep restrictio...

Athlete self-report measures (ASRM) are a common and cost-effective method of athlete monitoring. It is purported that ASRM be used to detect athletes at risk of overtraining, injury or illness, allowing intervention through training modification. However it is not known whether ASRM are actually being used for or are achieving these objectives in...

Abstract Elite rowers complete rowing-specific and non-specific training, incorporating continuous and interval-like efforts spanning the intensity spectrum. However, established training load measures are unsuitable for use in some modes and intensities. Consequently, a new measure known as the T2minute method was created. The method quantifies lo...

Tran, Jacqueline, Main, Luana C., Rice, Anthony J. & Gastin, Paul B. (2014). Training distress, motivation, and burnout: Comparing wellness responses of successful and unsuccessful rowers throughout one competitive season. Presented at the 6th Exercise and Sports Science Australia Conference, 10–12 April 2014, Adelaide, Australia.

Three studies were conducted to validate the Training Distress Scale (TDS), a 19-item measure of training-related distress and performance readiness. Study 1 was a randomized, controlled laboratory experiment in which a treatment group undertook daily interval training until a 25% decrement occurred in time-to-fatigue performance. Comparisons with...