Linda Smolak

Kenyon College · Department of Psychology

Self-sexualization refers to intentionally engaging in activities expressly to appear more sexually appealing. The purpose of our studies was to examine gender similarities and differences in how women and men conceptualize self-sexualization as well as introduce measures appropriate for large-scale data collection. In a qualitative study, we first...

This article explores the clash between the biopsychiatric paradigm and the sociocultural paradigm. After considering their essential assumptions, it is argued that the biopsychiatric paradigm has a number of significant problems, including a misunderstanding and misrepresentation of the sociocultural perspective it purports to have minimised or ci...

We expand on Lamb and Peterson's (2011) discussion of the influence of social forces on the development of girls' sexual empowerment. A predominant message from a variety of media in the U.S. is that women are sexual objects controlled by men's sexual desires. Media messages are bolstered by the sexist treatment of girls and women in everyday socie...

Girls in the United States are increasingly con-fronted with a sexualized culture, including sexualized clothing made especially for pre-teen girls. Previous re-search has shown that when adult women are portrayed as sexualized they are seen as less competent. In the present study we depicted a pre-teen girl in sexualized clothing to determine if s...

Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997) proposes that women from Western cultures are widely portrayed and treated as objects of the male gaze, leading to the development of self-objectification, in which girls and women internalize these societal messages and view their own bodies as objects to be evaluated according to narrow standa...

Pubic hair removal is common in college age men and women in the United States and Australia. The present research addresses two questions related to this practice: (1) Are objectification and body shape concerns related to pubic hair removal; and (2) Do these relationships differ by gender? U.S. undergraduates, 148 women and 76 men, completed ques...

It seems appropriate and desirable that women should investigate these matters experimentally, now that the opportunity for training and research is open to them. Thus, in time, may be written a psychology of woman based on truth, not on opinion; on precise, not on anecdotal evidence; on accurate data rather than on remnants of magic (Hollingworth,...

Boys’ use of muscle building techniques during early adolescence is poorly understood. The present study investigated the impact of gender role intensification, investment in muscular media images, appearance social comparison, and attitudes concerning muscularity on the use of muscle building techniques. Middle school boys (N = 143; M age = 12.92y...

Based on her anthropological research, Nichter (2000) concluded that it is normative for many American girls to engage in body self-disparagement in the form of "fat talk." The purpose of the present two studies was to develop a quantitative measure of fat talk. A series of 17 scenarios were created in which "Naomi" is talking with a female friend(...

It was hypothesized that feminist women would experience positive body image due to a heightened ability to critique cultural pressures related to thinness. Samples from 26 studies (almost all North American) were compiled for a meta-analysis to examine the association between feminist identity and measures related to body image and eating problems...

Three components of body image - drive for thinness (DT), drive for muscularity (DM), and drive for leanness (DL) - were assessed in 232 college students. A new measure of DL was developed. Data suggested that the new scale yielded valid and reliable scores. The relationships of gender, gender norm endorsement, and self-objectification to DT, DM, a...

It is important for adults who work with youth to know how to address the issues of eating disorders and steroid use. This article provides signs and symptoms for both, and then gives practical suggestions for talking with youth about a potential problem. It ends with prevention strategies for adults who work with youth. (Contains 3 tables.)

Objective of review. The purpose of this review is to summarize research published since 2004 concerning the relationship between eating problems and disorders, on the one hand, and trauma, on the other. The focus is on issues concerning the relationship between child sexual abuse (CSA) and other forms of early and adulthood trauma to eating proble...

Body image is defined as one’s perception of, affective reaction to, and cognitive appraisal of one’s body. It has become evident that the process of developing a body image as well as the nature of these perceptions and appraisals are marked by considerable gender differences. In addition, the consequences of negative body image seem to differ for...

This study examines the relationship of three sociocultural factors-media influence, peer teasing, and parent teasing/comments and three potential moderator variables-self-esteem, social comparison, and endorsement of male strength and athleticism-to drive for muscularity in middle school boys. There were 287 seventh and eighth grade boys who compl...

Eating disorder prevention is a young field that has made significant strides in the past two decades. It is timely to take a look back at what we have learned during this period in order to begin to address the question, "What next?" This paper considers several key issues based upon a review of the literature and the authors' perspectives. Topics...

Sociocultural influences on the use of muscle-building techniques, particularly food supplement and steroid use, were examined in a sample of 383 middle-school boys. A modified version of the tripartite influence model was evaluated with muscle-building techniques as the dependent variable. Results indicated that media, peer, and parent influences...

Developing a lean muscular figure for the purposes of sports and/or appearance has become a central issue for males. Concern has been raised because the desire to develop such a body build may lead to the adoption of numerous health-threatening behaviors. Consequently, this review presents a comprehensive analysis of the physical and psychological...

The combination of gender differences and evidence of sociocultural origin in body image problems, weight and shape control, eating disorders, and steroid abuse demand a close examination of how gender contributes to these problems. Analyses of gender roles as measured by traditional sex role inventories are likely to be insufficient given the conc...

During the past two decades, there has been an explosion of research concerning body image in children and adolescence. This research has been fueled both by concern about the effects of poor body image in children and adolescents themselves and by the assumption that body dissatisfaction during childhood and adolescence creates risk for the develo...

There are data that show that women are objectified in the media, that girls and women experience a high rate of body dissatisfaction and eating problems, and that exposure to objectified media images of women is related to the experience of self-objectification and body shame among women. Media images of women promote a thin, sexy ideal. The objec...

This study had two goals. The first was to assess the magnitude and consistency of the relationship between child sexual abuse (CSA) and eating disorders (ED). The second was to examine methodological factors contributing to the heterogeneity of this relationship. Meta-analysis was used to examine both questions. Fifty-three studies were included i...

Much has happened since the first volume of Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth was published in 2001. Since that time, there has been an explosion of research output in these three areas. The goal for this new edition is to assimilate the recent information into a form that is easily accessible for researchers, clinicians, and stud...

The purpose of this study was to investigate elementary school children''s interpretation of sexual harassment incidents and the relationship of those interpretations to self-esteem and body esteem. Eleven scenarios were read to 73 third- to fifth-grade children. Eight scenarios exemplified peer harassment. The children were asked how they thought...

This paper describes our efforts to promote “media literacy” and media resistance skills in boys and girls ages 9-11 who were participating in a controlled evaluation of a 10-lesson prevention program designed to improve nutrition and exercise behavior and to promote self-acceptance and body esteem. Our approach to a critical evaluation of mass med...

Three hundred and eighty-five girls ages 10 through 14 years were surveyed about eating behavior, body satisfaction, concern with being slender, and cues from parents, peers, and magazines in regard to weight management techniques and the importance of slenderness. A majority reported receiving a clear message from fashion magazines and peers or fa...

Accumulating evidence indicates that elementary school children, especially girls, frequently report body dissatisfaction and weight management behavior. Data suggest that one possible reason that prevention programs aimed at adolescents have been relatively unsuccessful is that they are “too late.” Programs directed toward elementary school childr...

Three predictions based on Levine and Smolak's (1992) developmental model of dieting and eating disturbances were tested: (1) Changes in pubertal status and/or dating status increase the probability of no pathological dieting in middle school girls; (2) concurrent change in pubertal status, dating status, and academic stress increases the probabili...

Puberty has been related to the onset of a variety of weight concerns and eating problems among middle school girls, including body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating disorders. At least two models can be used to explain these relationships. The first emphasizes the timing of puberty, arguing that girls who face early puberty are particularly str...

Many investigations of Piaget's model of cognitive-linguistic relationships have used methods that are inconsistent with Piagetian theory. This study examined 3 common methodological problems: (1) the definition and scoring of stage 6 object permanence, (2) the definitions of representational language and symbolic play, and (3) the use of correlati...

This chapter considers some of the factors important in the development of elementary school prevention programs and describes an experimental evaluation of such a program. The chapter is divided into 4 major sections. The 1st section is an attempt to define terms and provide theoretical background concerning factors which might be addressed in a p...

Presents an update and extension of the authors' (1996) review of the literature on mass media, developmental psychology, and eating disorders. The chapter explores the literature connecting mass media to the developmental psychology of eating disorders and to classroom-based primary prevention efforts. This review suggests a great need for further...

Objective of review. This chapter reviews recent publications and ''in press'' manuscripts pertaining to prevention of eating disorders. Based on a continuum model of prevention, we categorize programs as ''universal- selective'' (intended for very large groups of people, including some who are at risk by virtue of age and developmental stage) or '...

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Temple University, 1980. Bibliography: leaves 73-78. Microfilm of typescript. Ann Arbor, Mich. : Xerox University Microfilms, 1980.--1 reel ; 35 mm.