Liliana J Lengua

• Ph.D.
• Professor (Full) at University of Washington

The development of emotion regulation is integral to children's socioemotional adjustment. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reflects parasympathetic regulation of cardiac arousal and is thought to be an indicator of emotion regulation. However, it is unclear how RSA is associated with positive maternal behaviors and infant emotional recovery in r...

Children's temperament is a central individual characteristic that has significant implications, directly and indirectly, for their social, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and health outcomes, through its evocative and moderating effects on other social and contextual influences. Accounting for these contextual influences is critical to articulat...

Background The mechanisms linking early‐life adversity with psychopathology over the life‐course are complex. In this prospective study, we collectively examined cognitive, affective, and developmental mediators previously found to individually link childhood threat and deprivation experiences to adolescent psychopathology to identify the most pote...

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented youth and families with a broad spectrum of unique stressors. Given that adolescents are at increased risk for mental health and emotional difficulties, it is critical to explore family processes that confer resilience for youth in the face of stress. The current study investigated caregiver emotion regulation (E...

Background Fear learning is a core component of conceptual models of how adverse experiences may influence psychopathology. Specifically, existing theories posit that childhood experiences involving childhood trauma are associated with altered fear learning processes, while experiences involving deprivation are not. Several studies have found alter...

In the peripartum, putative mechanisms in the transmission of prenatal contextual risk and maternal psychological distress include biological and social processes. In this study, path analyses were used to test unique, cascading pathways of prenatal contextual risk and pre- and postnatal maternal psychological distress through social mediators (par...

Objectives Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a brief (6-week) mindfulness-based behavioral parenting program offered in community settings to parents of preschool-age children living in low-income or high-adversity contexts. Method Study 1 was a quasi-experimental, waitlist control study conducted with 53 parents whose ch...

This study examined the effects of the REsilient Attitudes and Living for Professionals (REAL Pro) prevention intervention on the well-being of professionals who work with children and families. The program combines mindfulness and self-compassion practices with cognitive-behavioral tools that aim to promote improved stress management, emotion regu...

Stress is considered a transdiagnostic mechanism underlying psychopathology. Research has suggested that when people experience more stress, they also act more impulsively. Most prior work has focused on between-persons associations or tested broad conceptualizations of impulsivity. We tested associations of momentary reports of perceived stress an...

This study aimed to understand Brazilian immigrant parents' experience and needs using an explanatory sequential design with two phases: survey and structured interviews. The results identified several challenges these parents face, the most prevalent being a lack of social support, as well as cultural values and parenting styles. These findings ar...

This study evaluated the impact on student and staff well-being of a mindfulness-based cognitive-behavioral coping program, Be REAL (Resilient Attitudes & Living), delivered by campus staff using a task-sharing approach. The program was adapted for online delivery during COVID19. Study participants included 325 undergraduate students and 100 staff...

This study examined the feasibility and accessibility of brief perinatal mindfulness-based interventions (1 prenatal, 2 postnatal) aimed at supporting the wellbeing of women and their infants living in the context of low income. First time expectant mothers (n = 202) were recruited through clinics and community-based organizations. We examined the...

Childhood adversity is common and associated with elevated risk for transdiagnostic psychopathology. Reward processing has been implicated in the link between adversity and psychopathology, but whether it serves as a mediator or moderator is unclear. This study examined whether alterations in behavioral and neural reward processing function as a me...

Despite broad interest in how children and youth cope with stress and how others can support their coping, this is the first Handbook to consolidate the many theories and large bodies of research that contribute to the study of the development of coping. The Handbook's goal is field building - it brings together theory and research from across the...

This study examined whether parental control differentially predicted children's effortful control and adjustment depending on children's levels of executive control and delay ability. Using longitudinal data, the study included 241 preschool‐age children and their mothers. Fifty‐seven percent of the sample was lower income and included 64% White,...

Despite adolescents’ suicidal thoughts and behaviors being major health problems, sparse literature exists on the roles of adolescents’ disclosing their feelings to caregivers in their suicidal thoughts and behaviors. This study examined whether adolescents’ comfort in disclosing their feelings and problems to caregivers predicts subsequent suicida...

Over 750 studies have examined parental psychological control (PPC) in different cultures. However, the conceptualization of PPC remains unclear, and operationalizations of PPC have been inconsistent. Herein we review and refine conceptual models of PPC, focusing on intrusiveness and emotional manipulation as two core facets of PPC. Guided by Socia...

Elevated child and caregiver psychopathology are observed in families of children with cancer, with a subset developing clinically significant symptoms. This study examines whether caregivers’ resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and observed emotion regulation (ER) are protective against caregiver and child psychopathology during the first y...

Objectives This study examined specificity in the effects of three perinatal mindfulness-based prevention programs that differed in their timing (prenatal, postpartum) and target (maternal well-being, parenting). Effects on maternal mental health (depression, anxiety, resilience), mindfulness, and observed parenting, as well as observed, physiologi...

Study examined predictors and mental health consequences of appraisal (threat, support satisfaction) and coping (active, avoidant) in a sample of low-income women during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Pre-COVID-19 contextual risk and individual resources and COVID-19-specific risk factors were examined as predictors of COVID-19 appraisal and...

The early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated stay-at-home orders resulted in a stark reduction in daily social interactions for children and adolescents. Given that peer relationships are especially important during this developmental stage, it is crucial to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social behavior and risk for...

Earlier pubertal development appears to be one pathway through which childhood trauma contributes to psychopathology in adolescence. Puberty-related changes in neural networks involved in emotion processing, namely the amygdala-medial prefrontal (mPFC) circuit, may be a potential mechanism linking trauma and adolescent psychopathology. Our particip...

While appraisal and coping are known to impact adolescent psychopathology, more vulnerable or resilient responses to stress may depend on individual temperament. This study examined early life temperament as a moderator of the prospective relations of pre-adolescent appraisal and coping with adolescent psychopathology. The sample included 226 (62%...

Objective: Previous research has established that short-term and persistent stress negatively impact mental health, with one proposed consequence being increased impulsivity. The present study tests the short-term and persistent associations between stress and three facets of global self-reports of impulsivity: negative urgency, lack of premeditat...

Low childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with increased risk for psychopathology, in part because of heightened exposure to environmental adversity. Adverse experiences can be characterized along dimensions, including threat and deprivation, that contribute to psychopathology via distinct mechanisms. The current study investigated a n...

Emotion regulation (ER) is an important factor in resilience and overall well-being throughout development, and youth report increased variation in emotion and capacity for regulation across adolescence and early adulthood. Specific emotions may be associated with the use of different ER strategies, but much evidence exclusively collapses across ne...

Parents of young children were a subgroup of the population identified early in the pandemic as experiencing significant mental-health symptoms. Using a longitudinal sample of 3,085 parents from across the United States who had a child or children age 0 to 5, in the present study, we identified parental mental-health trajectories from April to Nove...

Objective: The Acquired Preparedness (AP) model proposes that impulsive personality traits predispose some individuals to learn certain behavior-outcome associations (expectancies), and that these expectancies in turn influence the escalation of risky behaviors. This theory has been applied to the development of behaviors such as drinking, drug us...

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has been recognized to provide rare insight to advance the scientific un- derstanding of early life adversity, such as material hardship. During the COVID-19 pandemic, material hardship (i.e., difficulty paying for basic needs) in families of young children has had detrimental effects on caregivers’ and children’s...

Background This study examined whether COVID‐19‐related maternal mental health changes contributed to changes in adolescent psychopathology. Methods A community sample of 226 adolescents (12 years old before COVID‐19) and their mothers were asked to complete COVID‐19 surveys early in the pandemic (April–May 2020, adolescents 14 years) and approxim...

This study examined bidirectional relations between television exposure and effortful control accounting for the effects of family contextual risk factors. Methods: Data were from a sample (N=306) of parents and their preschool-age children (T1 M = 36 mos. in 2008-2010) assessed four times, once every 9 mos. Results: At T1, adolescent parent st...

Negative emotionality and effortful control consistently predict child adjustment, yet few studies explore their interactive effects on adjustment. In concurrent and longitudinal (one-year follow-up) analyses, we examined negative emotionality-by-effortful control interactions in predicting anxiety, depression, and conduct problems in 214 children...

“Green space” effects on health have been amply demonstrated, but whether specific features of green space exert differential effects remains unknown. Driven by developmental psychology theory highlighting the importance of play for young children, we investigated the association between parks with playgrounds, as a subtype of “green space”, and yo...

Parents living in low-income contexts shouldered disproportionate hardships during the COVID-19 pandemic with consequences to maternal mental health and child adjustment. The current study uses a sample of first-time mothers (N = 147) of young toddlers, all living in low-income contexts, to examine the roles of pre-pandemic and COVID-19-specific ri...

Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is related to disparities in the development of both language and executive functioning (EF) skills. Emerging evidence suggests that language development may precede and provide necessary scaffolding for EF development in early childhood. The present preregistered study investigates how these skills co-develop l...

Objective: Previous work has examined family income and material hardship in pediatric cancer. However, few studies have focused on perceived financial strain (PFS), or the extent to which caregivers perceive financial stress and worry related to their child's cancer. The current study addresses this gap by a) describing the trajectory of perceive...

This study examined whether effortful control (executive control [EC], delay ability [DA]) accounted for the effects of early-childhood contextual factors (income, cumulative risk, parenting) on middle-childhood adjustment (social competence, internalizing and externalizing problems), or whether contextual factors account for observed associations...

The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced novel stressors into the lives of youth. Identifying factors that protect against the onset of psychopathology in the face of these stressors is critical. We examine a wide range of factors that may protect youth from developing psychopathology during the pandemic. We assessed pandemic-related stressors, interna...

Background: Low childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with increased risk for psychopathology, due in part to heightened exposure to environmental adversity. Adverse experiences can be characterized along dimensions, including threat and deprivation, that contribute to psychopathology via distinct mechanisms. The current study investig...

Objective: To examine effects of stress on caregiver psychological adjustment during the first year of pediatric cancer. Method: Caregivers (N = 159) of children with cancer completed monthly questionnaires assessing domains of caregiver psychological adjustment (depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms) and stress (general life st...

Background: Children exposed to cumulative risk (CR) are more likely to have poor physical and psychological health across the lifespan. CR may contribute to children's adjustment, in part through its effects on appraisal and coping. Further, child temperament may alter the effects of CR on appraisal and coping. Objective: This study investigate...

Spanking remains common around the world, despite evidence linking corporal punishment to detrimental child outcomes. This study tested whether children (Mage = 11.60) who were spanked (N = 40) exhibited altered neural function in response to stimuli that suggest the presence of an environmental threat compared to children who were not spanked (N =...

The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced many novel stressors into the lives of youth. Identifying factors that protect against the onset of psychopathology in the face of these pandemic-related stressors is critical. We examine a wide range of factors that may protect youth from developing psychopathology during the pandemic. We assessed pandemic-rela...

Background and objectives An increasing number of college students in the U.S. report elevations in stress and anxiety. One approach to addressing this need is to offer skills training programs. Design This study used a stepped-wedge design to test the effects of a mindfulness-based coping-enhancement program on college students’ stress-management...

Objective: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented changes to the lives of youth, including social distancing measures and stay-at-home orders resulting in a sudden and stark reduction in daily social interactions for children and adolescents. Given that peer relationships are especially important during this developmental stage, it is cruc...

Background: Adolescence is a period of increased vulnerability for internalizing problems, particularly following exposure to stressful life events. We examine how patterns of emotion regulation and brain structure and function predict internalizing problems during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as moderate the association between pandemic-related...

Objective After diagnosis, caregivers of children with cancer, particularly mothers or primary caregivers (PCs), often show elevated depressive symptoms which may negatively impact family functioning. We tested primary caregiver (PC) and secondary caregiver (SC) depressive symptoms as predictors of family, co‐parenting, and marital functioning and...

Stress that undergraduate students experience is a growing public health concern, and there is increasing attention to programs that promote protective factors and skills to support resilience and well-being. Be REAL (REsilient Attitudes and Living) is a program that has been shown to increase students' use of effective coping strategies, mindfulne...

Children growing up in low-income households tend to be less academically, socially, and emotionally ready at school entry. Self-regulation has been identified as a key factor underlying children’s academic achievement and social–emotional competence and may be promoted through effective parenting. However, few existing parenting programs that teac...

This study investigated the possible unique effects of pre‐and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms in relation to parenting and children's effortful control in predicting children's adjustment. Contextual risk factors (income, negative life events) were modelled. Mothers and children (N = 306) were assessed four times, including T1 maternal repo...

There is growing interest among researchers and clinicians in incorporating one of the most efficacious treatments for improving emotion regulation, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), into parenting interventions, with the explicit purpose of improving parental well-being so as to positively impact children's social–emotional outcomes. Integration...

Emerging evidence suggests impulsive states may be reliably measured in the moment using ecological momentary assessment (EMA); however, research has not investigated whether the multi-factor structure of impulsive traits also characterizes impulsive states. In two independent samples spanning adolescence through young adulthood (n = 211, n = 222),...

Given the equivocal literature on the relationship between internalizing symptoms and early adolescent alcohol use (AU) and AU disorder (AUD), the present study took a developmental perspective to understand how internalizing and externalizing symptoms may operate together in the etiology of AU and AUD. We pit the delayed onset and rapid escalation...

In a sample of young adults (N = 222) assessed 3 times per day for 10 days, we tested whether negative emotions were associated with multiple facets of impulsivity at the state-level, and whether those associations were moderated by global self-report of negative urgency. Our findings suggest a robust within-person association between negative affe...

This study tested child characteristics (temperamental executive control and negative reactivity) and maternal characteristics (parenting behaviors and maternal depressive symptoms) as predictors of a mother's emotion-related socialization behaviors (ERSBs). Further, parenting behaviors and ERSBs were examined as predictors of children's emotion kn...

Negative urgency is a trait that is a risk factor for a range of psychopathology. Yet, little research has tested whether global self-report measures of negative urgency truly reflect a heightened association between real-world negative emotions and impulsive behaviors. In a sample of young adults (N = 222) assessed 3 times per day for 10 days, we...

There is a small body of research that has connected individual differences in negative urgency, the tendency to report rash actions in response to negative emotions, with self-report depressive and anxiety symptoms. Despite the conceptual overlap of negative urgency with negative emotionality, the tendency to experience frequent and intense negati...

Introduction Despite the central role of inhibitory control in models of adolescent development, few studies have examined the longitudinal development of inhibitory control within adolescence and its prospective association with maladaptive outcomes. The current study evaluated: 1) growth in inhibitory control from early‐ to middle‐adolescence, an...

Additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis regulation on children's adjustment were examined, along with the effects of low income and cumulative risk on executive control and the HPA axis. The study utilized longitudinal data from a community sample of preschool age children ( N = 306, 36–...

Exposures to adverse childhood experiences compromise the early developmental foundation of people long before they become parents. These exposures partly take place within the family environment -- a context tightly shared by parents and children. Despite considerable evidence regarding effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), differential...

Objective: To describe the trajectory of patient and caregiver mental health from diagnosis through the first year of treatment for pediatric cancer and assess whether rates of clinically relevant symptoms were elevated compared with norms. We examined mean levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS)...

Background There is evidence in school-age children that physical activity enhances cognitive performance, but experimental evidence of this relationship in early childhood is lacking. This study's aims were to test if active versus sedentary time differentially influences preschoolers' short-term executive functioning. Methods Three-to five-year-...

Objective: The stress of having a child with cancer can impact the quality of relationships within the family. The current study describes the longitudinal trajectory of marital, parent-child, and sibling conflict beginning around the time of diagnosis through the first year of treatment. We examined the average level of marital, parent-child, and...

Contributions of parental limit setting, negativity, scaffolding, warmth, and responsiveness to Body Mass Index (BMI) were examined. Parenting behaviors were observed in parent-child interactions, and child BMI was assessed at 5 years of age. Mothers provided demographic information and obtained child saliva samples used to derive cortisol concentr...

Objective: When a child is diagnosed with cancer, problems may arise in family relationships and negatively affect child adjustment. The current study examined patterns of spillover between marital and parent-child relationships to identify targets for intervention aimed at ameliorating family conflict. Method: Families (N = 117) were recruited...

Objective: The current study examined the effect of stress on sibling conflict during the first year of pediatric cancer treatment. Method: Families (N = 103) included a child with cancer (aged 2-17 years, Mage = 6.46, SD = 3.52) and at least one sibling aged <5 years of the child with cancer (Mage = 8.34, SD = 5.61). Primary caregivers complete...

Objective: Pediatric cancer is highly stressful for parents. The current prospective study examines the impact of several stressors (financial strain, life threat, treatment intensity, treatment-related events and negative life events) on the trajectory of marital adjustment across the first year following diagnosis. We examined whether average le...

It is expected that both children and their parents contribute to children's development of emotion knowledge and adjustment. Bidirectional relations between child temperament (fear, frustration, executive control) and mothers' reactions to children's emotional experiences were examined to explore how these variables predict children's emotion unde...

This study examined state-trait models of diurnal cortisol (morning level and diurnal slope), and whether income, cumulative risk and parenting behaviors predicted variance in trait and state levels of cortisol. The sample of 306 mothers and their preschool children included 29% families at or near poverty, 27% families below the median income, and...

Latina immigrants are at increased risk for poor mental health. Amigas Latinas Motivando el Alma (ALMA) is a group-based intervention to reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress among Latina immigrants. Based on participants’ feedback and growing evidence supporting mindfulness as a way to reduce stress and improve mental health, addition...

This study examined whether parenting moderated the association between cumulative risk and preschool children's adjustment problems, social competence, and academic readiness. The sample consisted of 306 families representing the full range of income, with 29% at or near poverty and 28% lower income. Cumulative risk and observed maternal parenting...

Background: As predicted by self-medication theories that drinking is motivated by a desire to ameliorate emotional distress, some studies find internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety, depression) increase risk of adolescent drinking; however, such a risk effect has not been supported consistently. Our prior work examined externalizing symptoms as a...

Objective: Identification of early risk factors related to obesity is critical to preventative public health efforts. In this study, we investigated links between the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA)-axis activity (diurnal cortisol pattern), geospatially operationalized exposure to neighborhood crime, and body mass index (BMI) for a sample of...

Externalizing symptoms robustly predict adolescent substance use (SU); however, findings regarding internalizing symptoms have been mixed, suggesting that there may be important moderators of the relationship between internalizing problems and SU. The present study used a longitudinal community sample (N = 387, 55% female, 83% White) to test whethe...

Bidirectional associations between child temperament (fear, frustration, positive affect, effortful control) and parenting behaviors (warmth, negativity, limit setting, scaffolding, responsiveness) were examined as predictors of preschool-age children's adjustment problems and social competence. Participants were a community sample of children (N =...

This study examined the concurrent and longitudinal relations among cumulative risk, appraisal, coping, and adjustment. Longitudinal path models were tested in a community sample of 316 children in preadolescence to examine hypotheses that threat appraisal and avoidant coping mediate the effects of cumulative risk on child adjustment, whereas posit...

Background Orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs) represent a significant population worldwide, enduring poor health and living conditions. Evidence-based interventions are needed. However, without parents, ethical concerns about including OVCs in research persist. The aim of our study was to better understand the ethical challenges facing research...

Using both variable- and person-centered approaches, this study examined the role of temperament in relation to children’s vulnerable or resilient responses to cumulative risk. Observed reactivity and regulation dimensions of temperament were tested as mediating and moderating the relation between family cumulative risk and teacher-reported adjustm...

This study aimed to specify the neural mechanisms underlying the link between low household income and diminished executive control in the preschool period. Specifically, we examined whether individual differences in the neural processes associated with executive attention and inhibitory control accounted for income differences observed in performa...

Early adolescence is a dynamic period for the development of alcohol appraisals (expected outcomes of drinking and subjective evaluations of expected outcomes), yet the literature provides a limited understanding of psychosocial factors that shape these appraisals during this period. This study took a comprehensive view of alcohol appraisals and co...

Background: Children from low-income backgrounds are more likely to have cognitive impairments, academic problems, and obesity. Biological mechanisms for the relationship between adiposity and neurocognitive functioning have been suggested, but the direction of effects is unclear. Methods: The relations among income, BMI, and cognitive-behaviora...

Unpublished report of a pilot study with promising results. [Note: first author is Barrow, last author is Bunge]

Environmental risk predicts disrupted basal cortisol levels in preschool children. However, little is known about the stability or variability of diurnal cortisol morning levels or slope patterns over time in young children. This study used latent profile analysis to identify patterns of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity during the p...

The purpose of this study was to examine whether parenting moderated the association between maternal depressive symptoms and initial levels and growth of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. This study used a community sample of preadolescent children (N = 214; 8-12 years old at Time 1), measuring maternal depressive symptoms an...

States and jurisdictions are under increased pressure to demonstrate the use of evidence-based treatments (EBTs) for children’s mental health, increasing the demand for a workforce trained in these practices. Universities are a critical pipeline for this workforce. This article describes the genesis and evolution of a university-based initiative fo...

This pilot study examines the effects of a ten-week play-based intervention on executive function (EF) skills among children enrolled in a therapeutic preschool program. Our Cognitive Play intervention included a series of commercially available family games, with task rules that got progressively more difficult across the ten weeks. During this ti...

The study examined growth in effortful control (executive control, delay ability) in relation to income, cumulative risk (aggregate of demographic and psychosocial risk factors), and adjustment in 306 preschool-age children (50 % girls, 50 % boys) from families representing a range of income (29 % at- or near-poverty; 28 % lower-income; 25 % middle...

Externalizing problem behavior is a robust predictor of early adolescent substance use (SU); however, findings regarding internalizing problems have been mixed, suggesting that there may be important moderators of the relationship between internalizing problems and SU. The present study used a community sample (mean age was 12.1 at the first assess...

This study tested the hypothesis that the effects of income and cumulative risk on the development of effortful control during preschool would be mediated by parenting. The study utilized a community sample of 306 children (36–40 months) representing the full range of family income, with 29 percent at or near poverty and 28 percent lower income. Tw...

This longitudinal study provided a comprehensive examination of age-related changes in alcohol outcome expectancies, subjective evaluation of alcohol outcomes, and automatic alcohol associations in early adolescence. A community sample (52% female, 75% White/non-Hispanic) was assessed annually for 3 years (mean age at the first assessment = 11.6 ye...

Temperament, appraisal, and coping are known to underlie emotion regulation, yet less is known about how these processes relate to each other across time. We examined temperamental fear, frustration, effortful control, and impulsivity, positive and threat appraisals, and active and avoidant coping as processes underpinning the emotion regulation of...

This study examined the relations of income and children's effortful control to teacher reports of preschoolers' social competence and adjustment problems. This study tested whether changes in effortful control accounted for the effects of income on children's adjustment. A community sample (N=306) of preschool-age children (36-40 mos.) and their m...

The effects of low income on children's adjustment might be accounted for by disruptions to hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA)-axis activity and to the development of effortful control. Using longitudinal data and a community sample of preschool-age children (N = 306, 36–39 months) and their mothers, recruited to over-represent low-income familie...

Objective: To quantify the extent to which maternal report of inconsolable infant crying, rather than colic (defined by Wessel's criteria of daily duration of fussing and crying >3 hours), is associated with maternal postpartum depressive symptoms. Methods: Participants were 587 mothers who were recruited shortly before or after delivery and fol...

Interactions between reactive and regulatory dimensions of temperament may be particularly relevant to children's adjustment but are examined infrequently. This study investigated these interactions by examining effortful control as a moderator of the relations of fear and frustration reactivity to children's social competence, internalizing, and e...

A large literature suggests associations between self-regulation and motivation and adolescent problem behavior; however, this research has mostly pitted these constructs against one another or tested them in isolation. Following recent neural-systems based theories (e.g., Ernst & Fudge, 200920. Ernst , M. , & Fudge , J. L. ( 2009 ). A developmen...