Leonidas Stefanis

• Haed of Department at National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Background/Objectives: Low-grade inflammation in the form of microglial activation may be involved in neurodegenerative and vascular dementias. Subcortical small-vessel disease (SSVD) is the main form of vascular dementia, associated with brain barrier dysfunction and endothelial and monocyte activation. IL-6 and IL-17A are known proinflammatory cy...

Background and objectives The phenotype of p.A53T-α-synuclein (SNCA) mutation carriers with Parkinson’s disease (A53T-PD) appears more severe compared to idiopathic PD (iPD), however, information is limited. Here we conducted a comprehensive longitudinal study to investigate the progression of motor and nonmotor features of Α53Τ-PD compared to iPD....

This is a case presentation of a primary central nervous system B-cell lymphoma in a 69-year-old woman with chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids and chronic immunosuppressive treatment. The patient had been diagnosed as having probable chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascula...

Background The p.A53T variant in the SNCA gene was considered, until recently, to be the only SNCA variant causing familial Parkinson's disease (PD) in the Greek population. We identified a novel heterozygous p.A30G (c.89 C>G) SNCA pathogenic variant in five affected individuals of three Greek families, leading to autosomal dominant PD. This study...

Mutations in sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1) gene have been associated with frontotemporal dementia (FTD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia - ALS (FTD-ALS), and very recently, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), paget disease of bone (PDB), distal myopathy with rimmed vacuoles (DMRV), and neurodegenerative disorders in childho...

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is considered to be the second most prominent neurodegenerative disease and has a global prevalence. Glucocerebrosidase (GBA1) gene mutations represent a significant hereditary risk factor for the development of PD and have a profound impact on the motor and cognitive progression of the disease. The aim of this review is to...

Introduction: Previous research has shown that inflammatory immune biomarkers including peripheral white blood cell subpopulations differ between Parkinson's disease (PD) patients and healthy controls (HC), with idiopathic PD exhibiting higher neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR). The aim of our present report was to assess the peripheral immune pr...

α-Synuclein (AS) is a small presynaptic protein that is genetically, biochemically, and neuropathologically linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) and related synucleinopathies. We present here a review of the topic of this relationship, focusing on more recent knowledge. In particular, we review the genetic evidence linking AS to familial and sporadic...

Precision medicine has the potential to provide more accurate diagnosis, appropriate treatment and timely prevention strategies by considering patients' biological makeup. However, this cannot be realized without integrating clinical and omics data in a data-sharing framework that achieves large sample sizes. Systems that integrate clinical and gen...

Objective Our study investigates the impact of copy number variations (CNVs) on Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis using genome-wide data, aiming to uncover novel genetic mechanisms and improve the understanding of the role of CNVs in sporadic PD. Methods We applied a sliding window approach to perform CNV-GWAS and conducted genome-wide burden...

Idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is a clinic-radiological neurological syndrome presenting with cognitive deficits, gait disturbances and urinary incontinence. It often coexists with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Due to the reversible nature of iNPH when promptly treated, a lot of studies have focused on possible biomarkers, among which...

Introduction: Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients harboring recessive gene variants exhibit a distinct clinical phenotype with an early disease onset and relatively mild symptoms. Data concerning individualized therapy for autosomal recessive PD forms are still scarce. Methods: Demographic and treatment data of a cohort of PD carriers of recessive ge...

Background and objectives: The role of body mass index (BMI) in Parkinson disease (PD) is unclear. Based on the Comprehensive Unbiased Risk Factor Assessment for Genetics and Environment in PD (Courage-PD) consortium, we used 2-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) to replicate a previously reported inverse association of genetically predicted BMI w...

Background and aims: Neuropsychiatric symptoms are underestimated for Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) and studies investigated their imaging correlates are largely lackin. Aims of this study were (I) the severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms in PSP and (II) their structural imaging correlates. Methods: This is a cross- sectional study of twen...

Various forms of Parkinson's disease, including its common sporadic form, are characterized by prominent α‐synuclein (αSyn) aggregation in affected brain regions. However, the role of αSyn in the pathogenesis and evolution of the disease remains unclear, despite vast research efforts of more than a quarter century. A better understanding of the rol...

A link between chronic stress and Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis is emerging. Ample evidence demonstrates that the presynaptic neuronal protein alpha-synuclein (asyn) is closely tied to PD pathogenesis. However, it is not known whether stress system dysfunction is present in PD, if asyn is involved, and if, together, they contribute to neuro...

Patients with movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) living in remote and underserved areas often have limited access to specialized healthcare, while the feasibility and reliability of the video-based examination remains unclear. The aim of this narrative review is to examine which parts of remote neurological assessment are feasible...

The impact of HLA-DRB1 alleles in a Hellenic, Pediatric-Onset Multiple Sclerosis cohort: Implications on clinical and neuroimaging profile

Introduction: Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients harboring recessive gene variants exhibit a distinct clinical phenotype with an early disease onset and relatively mild symptoms. Data concerning individualized therapy for autosomal recessive PD forms are still scarce. Methods: Demographic and treatment data of a cohort of PD carriers of recessive ge...

Apraxia localization has relied on voxel-based, lesion-symptom mapping studies in left hemisphere stroke patients. Studies on the neural substrates of different manifestations of apraxia in neurodegenerative disorders are scarce. The primary aim of this study was to look into the neural substrates of different manifestations of apraxia in a cohort...

The management of blood pressure variability (BPV) in acute stroke presents a complex challenge with profound implications for patient outcomes. This narrative review examines the role of BPV across various stages of acute stroke care, highlighting its impact on treatment strategies and prognostic considerations. In the prehospital setting, while g...

Purpose of Review Atypical parkinsonism is a term usually used to describe three neurodegenerative parkinsonian disorders: progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), corticobasal degeneration (CBD), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). In contrast to Parkinson’s disease, these disorders have a poor prognosis and present with a multitude of diverse symptom...

The clinical features and pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) in dementia have been extensively studied. However, the genetic architecture and underlying neurobiological mechanisms of NPSs at preclinical stages of cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remain largely unknown. Mild behavioral impairment (MBI) represents an at...

Introduction Pathogenic variants in parkin (PRKN gene) are the second most prevalent known monogenic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). How monoallelic or biallelic pathogenic variants in the PRKN gene may affect its transcription in patient‐derived biological material has not been systematically studied. Methods PRKN mRNA expression levels were m...

A pathogenic GAA repeat expansion in the first intron of the fibroblast growth factor 14 gene (FGF14) has been recently identified as the cause of spinocerebellar ataxia 27B (SCA27B). We herein screened 160 Greek index cases with late‐onset cerebellar ataxia (LOCA) for FGF14 repeat expansions using a combination of long‐range PCR and bidirectional...

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS), including depression, anxiety, apathy, visual hallucinations, and impulse control disorders, are very common during the course of Parkinson’s disease (PD), occurring even at the prodromal and premotor stages. Mild behavioral impairment (MBI) represents a recently described neurobehavioral syndrome, characterized by...

Background Motor/ non‐motor symptomatology and antiparkinsonian drugs deteriorate driving ability of Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients. Treating neurologists are frequently asked to evaluate driving fitness of their patients and provide evidence‐based consultation. Although several guidelines have been published, the exact procedure along with the...

Introduction: There has been a bias in the existing literature on Parkinson’s disease (PD) genetics as most studies involved patients of European ancestry, mostly in Europe and North America. Our target was to review published research data on the genetic profile of PD patients of non-European or mixed ancestry. Methods: We reviewed articles publis...

The aim of the present study is the evaluation of established Alzheimer’s disease (AD) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers in patients with idiopathic normal-pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH), both individually and as a total profile, and the investigation of their use as potential predictors of Tap-test responsiveness. Fifty-three patients with iNPH...

Background Some reports suggest that psychotic features may occur in the early stages of Parkinson’s disease (PD), but sensitive tools have not been utilized. Objective The aim was to evaluate the presence of psychotic symptoms using detailed scales and to assess the association with clinical characteristics. Methods Healthy controls and patients...

Background and Objectives: Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs) including pathological gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive eating, compulsive buying, and other related behaviors are well-known distinct non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease (PD). Some large-scale studies present a prevalence of at least 10%, however, there are other reports providi...

The Monogenic Network of the Global Parkinson's Genetics Program (GP2) aims to create an efficient infrastructure to accelerate the identification of novel genetic causes of Parkinson's disease (PD) and to improve our understanding of already identified genetic causes, such as reduced penetrance and variable clinical expressivity of known disease-c...

The Global Parkinson’s Genetics Program (GP2) will genotype over 150,000 participants from around the world, and integrate genetic and clinical data for use in large-scale analyses to dramatically expand our understanding of the genetic architecture of PD. This report details the workflow for cohort integration into the complex arm of GP2, and toge...

Objectives The aim was to explore the correlations between Jumping to Conclusions (JtC) tendency and neuropsychiatric features in patients with early Parkinson’s disease (PD). Background According to few reports, PD patients with impulsive–compulsive behaviors (ICBs) are prone to working memory difficulties including JtC bias. The correlation of p...

Unlabelled: Functional enrichment is the process of identifying implicated functional terms from a given input list of genes or proteins. In this article, we present Flame (v2.0), a web tool which offers a combinatorial approach through merging and visualizing results from widely-used functional enrichment applications while also allowing various...

Background The role of blood uric acid as a biomarker in symptomatic motor PD has been increasingly established in the literature. Objective Our present study assessed the role of serum uric acid as a putative biomarker in a prodromal PD cohort [REM Sleep Behavior disorder (RBD) and Hyposmia] followed longitudinally. Methods Longitudinal 5-year s...

Introduction: Previous epidemiological evidence has established the co-occurrence of malignant melanoma (MM) and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Shared molecular mechanisms have been proposed to be implicated in this relationship. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence of MM in patients with sporadic and genetic types of PD, as well as...

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key players in cell-to-cell communication in both physiological and pathological processes in the Central Nervous System. Thus far, the intracellular pathways involved in uptake and trafficking of EVs within different cell types of the brain are poorly understood. In our study, the endocytic processes an...

Σκοπος:Η νευροεκφύλιση συσχετιζόμενη µε την κινάση του Παντοθενικού (pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration, PKAN,OMIM 234200) αποτελεί το πιο κοινό τύπο νευροεκφύλισης µε συσσώρευση σιδήρου στον εγκεφάλου. Περίπου στο 30% των NBIA ασθενών ανευρίσκεται µεταλλαγή στο γονίδιο PANK2 το οποίο κληρονομείται µε αυτοσωµατικό υπολειπόμενο τρόπο μ...

Background: More than 200 years after James Parkinsondescribed a clinical syndrome based on his astute observations, Parkinson's disease (PD) has evolved into a complex entity, akin to the heterogeneity of other complex human syndromes of the central nervous system such as dementia, motor neuron disease, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy. Clinician...

Idiopathic bormal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is a neurological syndrome that clinically presents with Hakim’s triad, namely cognitive impairment, gait disturbances, and urinary incontinence. The fact that iNPH is potentially reversible makes its accurate and early diagnosis of paramount importance. Its main imaging characteristic is the dilation...

Background: Little is known about the impact of the dopamine system on development of cognitive impairment (CI) in Parkinson disease (PD). Objectives: We used data from a multi-site, international, prospective cohort study to explore the impact of dopamine system-related biomarkers on CI in PD. Methods: PD participants were assessed annually f...

Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) are atypical parkinsonian syndromes (APS) with various clinical phenotypes and considerable clinical overlap with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (iPD). This disease heterogeneity makes ante-mortem diagnosis extremely challenging with up to 24% of patients misdiagnosed. Because d...

Functional enrichment is the process of identifying implicated functional terms from a given input list of genes or proteins. In this article, we present Flame (v2.0), a web tool which offers a combinatorial approach through merging and visualizing results from widely-used functional enrichment applications while also allowing various flexible inpu...

Background: Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD) may manifest with atypical phenotypes, resembling behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) and corticobasal syndrome (CBS), phenotypes which typically have an underlying frontotemporal lobar degeneration with tau proteinopathy (FTLD-tau), such as Pick's disease, corticobasal degeneration (CB...

Background and Objectives: So far, there is little evidence of the ambient effect on motor and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease (PD). This systematic review aimed to determine the association between ambiental factors and the progression of PD. Materials and Methods: A systematic literature search of PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, and Web of Sc...

It is well established that patients with Gaucher disease, as well as carriers of the disease have an increased risk for developing Parkinson’s disease. A plethora of evidence suggests that disturbed α-Synuclein homeostasis is the link between Gaucher disease and Parkinson’s disease. The pathogenic mechanism linking these entities is still a topic...

Background: Epidemiological studies that examined the association between Parkinson's disease (PD) and cancers led to inconsistent results, but they face a number of methodological difficulties. Objective: We used results from genome-wide association studies (GWASs) to study the genetic correlation between PD and different cancers to identify co...

Current understanding of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) pathophysiology implicates perturbations in adaptive cellular immune responses, predominantly T cells, in Relapsing-Remitting forms (RRMS). Nevertheless, from a clinical perspective MS is a heterogeneous disease reflecting the heterogeneity of involved biological systems. This complexity requires adv...

Background: As gene-targeted therapies are increasingly being developed for Parkinson's disease (PD), identifying and characterizing carriers of specific genetic pathogenic variants is imperative. Only a small fraction of the estimated number of subjects with monogenic PD worldwide are currently represented in the literature and availability of cl...

Background: Lifestyle factors have been implicated in the long-lasting neurodegenerative process in prodromal PD (pPD). We aimed to investigate the associations between adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MeDi) and longitudinal changes of pPD probability and the development of PD or pPD in a Mediterranean older population. Methods: We used data...

The aim was to evaluate the performance of the latest quantitative marker for intrathecal IgG synthesis and to compare it with other established markers used for the same purpose. We retrospectively applied Auer’s and Reiber’s intrathecal IgG synthesis formulae in a cohort of 372 patients under investigation for central nervous system demyelination...

Introduction Differential diagnosis between Parkinson’s disease (PD) and multiple system atrophy–parkinsonian type (MSA-P), corticobasal degeneration (CBD), and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), collectively termed atypical Parkinsonism (AP), is challenging. Dopamine transporter density imaging with Ioflupane I123 (DaTscan) is a marker of presy...

Background: Patients with a frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) usually manifest with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). Alzheimer's disease (AD) may also manifest with a predominant behavioral-dysexecutive syndrome, similar to bvFTD. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, such as total tau (τT), phosphorylated tau (τP-181) an...

Two recent, high-profile manuscripts reported negative results with two parallel approaches of passive immunization targeting α-synuclein in a population of patients with early Parkinson's disease (PD). These phase II studies failed to show a bona fide disease-modifying neuroprotective effect on PD progression, despite the evidence that these antib...

Autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) is the most common adverse effect in alemtuzumab (ALZ) treated relapsing–remitting (RR) multiple sclerosis (MS) patients . The objective of this prospective study was to analyze the occurrence, timing of onset, clinical course, and laboratory characteristics of AITD post-ALZ. We evaluated 35 RRMS patients treated w...

Multiple System Atrophy (MSA)and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) are atypical parkinsonian syndromes (APS) with various clinical phenotypes and considerable clinical overlap with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (iPD). This disease heterogeneity makesante mortem diagnosis extremely challenging with up to 24% of patients misdiagnosed. Because dia...

Background: the apolipoprotein e4 allele (APOE4) constitutes an established genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease Dementia (ADD). We aimed to explore the frequency of the APOE isoforms in the Greek population of Southern Greece. Methods: peripheral blood from 175 Greek AD patients, 113 with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and 75 healthy i...

Introduction Multiple pathologies may underlie corticobasal syndrome (CBS), including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Typical amnestic AD is characterized by early selective hippocampal atrophy. The profile of hippocampal atrophy in AD patients presenting as CBS (CBS-AD), compared to CBS patients of non-AD pathologies (CBS-nAD) and amnestic AD patients,...

Right temporal variant of frontotemporal dementia (rtv-FTD) represents an uncommon and recently described frontotemporal dementia (FTD) entity presenting with symptoms in many ways comparable to those of the frontal or behavioral variant of FTD (bv-FTD). The aims of this study were to explore the timing of cognitive and behavioral symptoms of rtv-F...

Myotonic Dystrophies (DM, Dystrophia Myotonia) are autosomal dominant inherited myopathies with a high prevalence across different ethnic regions. Despite some differences, mainly due to the pattern of muscle involvement and the age of onset, both forms, DM1 and DM2, share many clinical and genetic similarities. In this study, we retrospectively an...

Combining high throughput screening approaches with induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based disease modeling represents a promising unbiased strategy to identify therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. Here we applied high content imaging on iPSC-derived neurons from patients with familial Parkinson’s disease bearing the G209A (p.A53T) α-synu...

Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a late-onset, X-linked, neurodegenerative disorder that affects premutation carriers of the FMR1 gene. FXTAS is often misdiagnosed as spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) or Parkinson's disease (PD). Herein, we sought to investigate the frequency, genotypic and phenotypic profile of FXTAS in two cohort...

Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is a neurological syndrome characterized by the clinical triad of gait disorder, cognitive impairment and urinary incontinence. It has attracted interest because of the possible reversibility of symptoms, especially with timely treatment. The main pathophysiological theory is based on a vicious circle...

Background and Objectives: Dementia affects more than 55 million patients worldwide, with a significant societal, economic, and psychological impact. However, many patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other related dementias have limited access to effective and individualized treatment. Care provision for dementia is often unequal, fragmented...

Background: Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype may be associated with the development of cognitive decline in idiopathic Parkinson's disease i(PD), however its effect in genetic PD is understudied. Objectives: In the current work we aimed to assess the impact of APOE genotype on cognition in iPD as well as in genetic PD with mutations in the Alpha-sy...

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its various comorbidities that may be observed are of great interest due to the complexity of MS pathophysiology and all of the immunological changes that follow. The incidence of cancer in MS has been investigated for several years, as not only does it affect ongoing therapeutical decisions, but also, certain disease-mo...

Herein, we report a case of alopecia universalis and transient accommodation spasm presented after alemtuzumab administration in a patient previously treated with fingolimod. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of accommodation spasm as an acute adverse effect of alemtuzumab. Treatment with alemtuzumab in relapsing-remitting mult...

The C9ORF72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion is an established cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and has also been associated with Huntington disease (HD)-like syndromes and rarely with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the present study we aimed to investigate the genotypic and ph...

Increased expression of alpha-synuclein (ASYN) and decreased expression of Nurr1 are associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis. These two proteins interact functionally and ASYN overexpression suppresses Nurr1 levels. ASYN pan-neuronal overexpression coupled with Nurr1 hemizygosity followed by Nurr1 repression in aging mice results in t...

Many lines of evidence have highlighted the role played by heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In this study, we have aimed to identify transcripts co-regulated by TAR DNA-binding protein 43 kDa and highly conserved heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins which have been previously shown to regulate TAR DNA-b...

Background Age at onset is one of the most critical factors contributing to the clinical heterogeneity of Parkinson's disease (PD), and available evidence is rather conflicting. Objective The aim of this study is to investigate the clinical differences between early-onset PD (EOPD) and mid-and-late-onset PD (MLOPD) in the Greek population, based o...

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by complex motor and non-motor symptoms that vary in onset, severity, response to treatment, and disability. The unpredictable and debilitating nature of PD and the inability to halt or slow disease progression may result in distress. Stress may exacerbate biological mechanisms believed to contribute to neu...

Exosomes have emerged as key players in cell-to-cell communication in both physiological and pathological processes in the Central Nervous System (CNS). Thus far, the intracellular pathways involved in uptake and trafficking of exosomes within different cell types of the brain (microglia and astrocytes) are poorly understood. In our study, the endo...

Pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis (MS, POMS) accounts for 3–5% of all MS cases and is characterized by a highly inflammatory profile, often warranting treatment with high-efficacy agents. Our aim is to present real-world data of a series of 18 Hellenic POMS patients treated with natalizumab (NTZ) either as adolescents or as adults, after high dise...

Citation: Vakrakou, A.G.; Alexaki, A.; Brinia, M.-E.; Anagnostouli, M.; Stefanis, L.; Stathopoulos, P. The mTOR Signaling Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis; from Animal Models to Human Data. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 8077. https://doi.

Background: Two studies that examined the interaction between HLA-DRB1 and smoking in Parkinson's disease (PD) yielded findings in opposite directions. Objective: To perform a large-scale independent replication of the HLA-DRB1 × smoking interaction. Methods: We genotyped 182 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) associated with smoking initia...

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a kinase involved in different cellular functions, including autophagy, endolysosomal pathways, and immune function. Mutations in LRRK2 cause autosomal-dominant forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Heterozygous mutations in GBA1, the gene encoding the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase), are the most co...

Retromer is a heteropentameric complex that plays a specialized role in endosomal protein sorting and trafficking. Here, we report a reduction in the retromer proteins—vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35), VPS26A, and VPS29—in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and in the ALS model provided by transgenic (Tg) mice expressing the mutan...

Despite several advances in the field, pharmacodynamic outcome measures reflective of LRRK2 kinase activity in clinical biofluids remain urgently needed. A variety of targets and approaches have been utilized including assessments of LRRK2 itself (levels, phosphorylation), or its substrates (e.g. Rab10 or other Rab GTPases). We have previously show...

The aim of the present study was the implementation of the composite imaging “Radscale” in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) and the evaluation of its score, as well as absolute stroke volume and peak flow velocity of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in aqueduct as indicators of a positive response following a tap test. Forty-f...

Neurodegenerative proteinopathies are defined as a class of neurodegenerative disorders, with either genetic or sporadic age‐related onset, characterized by the pathological accumulation of aggregated protein deposits. These mainly include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease...

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that often progresses to severe disability. Previous studies have highlighted the role of T cells in disease pathophysiology; however, the success of B-cell-targeted therapies has led to an increased interest in how B cells contribute to diseas...