Lee Crust

• Doctor of Philosophy
• NA at Independent Researcher

Community-based group physical activity programs promote exercise opportunities for older people. The aim of this study was to examine the short-term, new participant effect after joining Vitality, a community-based group physical activity program available in the East of England for older adults. Two independent groups of participants were assesse...

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is a syndrome of impaired health and performance that occurs as a result of low energy availability (LEA). Whilst many health effects associated with RED-S have been widely studied from a physiological perspective, further research exploring the psychological antecedents and consequences of the syndrome i...

Research on the psychology of mountaineering has received widespread attention over many decades. Therefore, to clarify scientific findings in the area, provide future research directions, and enable the development of applied recommendations to enhance performance and safety, the purpose of this systematic mixed studies review was to identify, app...

This article contributes empirical findings and sociological theoretical perspectives to discussions of the role of community lay health workers, including in improving the health of individuals and communities. We focus on the role of the Health Trainer (HT), at its inception described as one of the most innovative developments in UK Public Health...

Mental toughness (MT) is widely recognized as a valuable personal resource underpinning high quality athletic performance and success in sport. Over the last two decades, the substantive growth of MT research in sport has advanced understanding of the concept and its implications for athletes. Of particular importance to athletes and other individu...

Mental toughness (MT) is a personality construct that enhances performance in sport, while flow and clutch states are psychological states that underlie excellent athletic performance. This study explored whether flow and clutch states differed between higher MT (HMT) and lower MT (LMT) athletes. Sixteen athletes (HMT n = 8; LMT n = 8) were tracked...

Personality traits have been found to predict participation in high-risk sports. Nevertheless, recent research identified problems with treating participants in high-risk sports as a homogenous group. This narrative review provides a critical overview of personality research in the increasingly popular high-risk sport of mountaineering. Twenty four...

Objectives This study aimed to extend recent work on the effects of goal types in physical activity (PA; Swann, Hooper et al., 2020) by comparing the effects of SMART, open, and do-your-best (DYB) goals on performance and psychological responses in active and insufficiently active adults in a walking task. Design 4 (goal condition) x 3 (attempt) x...

Introduction: There is now substantial evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of falls and physical disability in later life. Despite encouragement, many older adults are not accruing the health benefits of an active lifestyle. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on the literature specifically highlighting the benefits of r...

The effect of goal type on affect, enjoyment, and physical activity in active and inactive adults. Objectives: Evidence suggests that different goal types produce different types of experience in physical activity. Understanding the types of interventions most effective in enhancing the experience of exercise and eliciting affective responses for...

On Youtube at: https://youtu.be/X5eoaqMVLwA The introduction of community-based Health Trainers (HTs) in the United Kingdom (UK) has been described as one of the most innovative developments in recent Public Health policy. HTs are tasked with reducing health inequalities in disadvantaged local communities by encouraging clients to develop healthie...

Dietary behaviour of university students is a growing concern and a potential contributor to weight gain during university studies. Individual differences may be one factor that influences how students respond and adapt when entering a new environment. Mental toughness (MT) is an individual difference which has previously been found to be significa...

Objectives The purpose of this study was to systematically identify, review, synthesise, and appraise current literature on flow in exercise. By doing so, this study aimed to highlight gaps and future research directions that will help to advance understanding and application of flow states in this setting. Design A systematic review using PRISMA...

Although numerous studies have examined the importance of mental toughness (MT) in sport, relatively few studies have examined mentally tough behaviours. We therefore sought to identify the indicative behaviours of elite, mentally tough mountaineers, an under-researched group, by examining participants’ experiences and perceptions. Phenomenological...

In order to address sociological concerns with embodiment and learning, in this article we explore the ‘weathering’ body in a currently under-researched physical-cultural domain. Weather experiences, too, are under-explored in sociology, and here we examine in-depth the lived experience of weather, and more specifically ‘weather work’ and ‘weather...

In order to address sociological concerns with embodiment and learning, in this article we explore the 'weathering' body in a currently under-researched physical-cultural domain. Weather experiences, too, are under-explored in sociology, and here we examine in depth the lived experience of weather and, more specifically, 'weather work' and 'weather...

An extensive body of research has investigated links between perfectionism and motivation, yet the underlying mechanisms linking these psychological characteristics have been underexplored. In this study, we used an integrative modelling approach to examine associations between dimensions of perfectionism (i.e., personal standards [PSP] and concern...

The 2015 Nepal earthquake and avalanche on Mount Everest generated one of the deadliest mountaineering disasters in modern times, bringing to media attention the physical-cultural world of high-altitude climbing. Contributing to the current sociological concern with embodiment, here we investigate the lived experience and social ‘production’ of end...

Available on YouTube at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hAhf8bjA3WQ&feature=youtu.be The 2015 Nepal earthquake and avalanche on Mount Everest generated one of the deadliest mountaineering disasters in modern times, bringing to media attention the physical-cultural world of high-altitude climbing. Contributing to the current sociological concern w...

Although numerous studies have examined the importance of mental toughness (MT) in sport, relatively few studies have examined mentally tough behaviours. We therefore sought to identify the indicative behaviours of elite, mentally tough mountaineers, an under-researched group, by examining participants' experiences and perceptions. Phenomenological...

We examined associations between mental toughness, self-directed, negatively toned emotions and cognitions, and self-forgiveness. With reference to their participation in competitive tennis, a sample of 343 competitive tennis players (Mage = 17.56, SD = 2.37) completed questionnaires measuring their mental toughness, self-forgiveness, and tendency...

Objectives The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of existing methods employed to collect experience-near data on flow in sport to develop a more robust approach to investigate the phenomenon in this context. Design Longitudinal mixed method multiple-case study. Method Ten Irish athletes (M age = 25.12 years, SD ± 3.83) completed the Flow...

The purpose of the study was to further examine the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow in sport. A sample of 256 athletes (M age = 23.65 years, SD = 5.43), competing at international (n = 59), national (n = 77), and club/university (n = 120) levels completed questionnaires assessing MT and dispositional flow. A signif...

The present study explored relationships between mental toughness (MT), barriers to exercise, and self-reported exercise behaviour in university students. Perceived harriers to exercise are important since previous work has identified barriers as strong predictors of exercise behaviour. MT was hypothesised to predict exercise barriers and self-repo...

This paper, based on a qualitative research project in the UK, explores the ‘personal troubles’ encountered in the lived experience of asthma, drawing on an approach currently under-utilised in studies of asthma: vignettes. These were used as an elicitation technique in in-depth research with 19 frequent exercisers and sports participants with asth...

Csikszentmihalyi’s conceptualisation of flow is the primary framework for understanding the psychology of optimal experience and performance in sport. However, emerging evidence suggests a more dynamic, multi-state perspective. This review focuses primarily on recent studies highlighting a second, overlapping ‘clutch’ state which – in addition to f...

This study investigated the psychological states underlying excellent performance in 26 athletes (Mage = 29 years; SD = 7.7) across a range of sports (team, net/wall, sprint, endurance, adventure) and standards (world-class to recreational). Participants were primarily interviewed on average 4 days after excellent performances. The data were analys...

Clutch performance is improved performance under pressure. However, little research has examined the psychological state experienced by athletes in these situations. Therefore, this study qualitatively examined the subjective experience underlying clutch performance across a range of sports (e.g., team, individual) and standards (Olympic to recreat...

http://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/pdf/10.1123/jsep.2016-0109 Mental toughness (MT) is a key psychological variable related to achievement in performance domains and perseverance in challenging circumstances. We sought to understand the lived-experiences of mentally tough high-altitude mountaineers, focusing primarily upon decisions to persever...

Resilience at work continues to be a major focus of both research and applied work. Often it is viewed in isolation from other perspectives and is rarely linked to positive psychology. This chapter deals with mental toughness, providing one specific approach to linking resilience and positive psychology to the world of work. The positive psychology...

Introduction: The Health Trainer (HT) role has considerable diversity and polarisation in Public Health service provision across England. Based on a nascent literature on the HT occupational role, the purpose of this study was to build on the understanding of this complex community-based role by exploring the views and perspectives on the occupatio...

Introduction - Mental Toughness (MT) A key construct in sport and exercise psychology associated with performing well in pressure situations. MT recently found related to performance times in cross-country running (Mahoney et al., 2014) and with behavioural perseverance (Gucciardi et al., 2016). Qualitative research has reported many recurring them...

Objectives: The 2015 Nepal earthquake and subsequent avalanche at Mount Everest Base Camp is the deadliest mountaineering disaster to date. This study is novel in exploring the lived experiences of survivors and the role of mental toughness in their psychological responses to the disaster. Design: Phenomenological study. Method: Ten mountaineers,...

Objectives The 2015 Nepal earthquake and subsequent avalanche at Mount Everest Base Camp is the deadliest mountaineering disaster to date. This study is novel in exploring the lived experiences of survivors and the role of mental toughness in their psychological responses to the disaster. Design Phenomenological study. Method Ten mountaineers, who...

Objectives Despite considerable scholarly attention over the last two decades, little is known about the influence of dispositional attributes on flow in sport. In achievement settings, mental toughness (MT) is a personal capacity supporting the process of high performance. Based on common overlaps with peak performance, confidence, control, concen...

This article explores the lived experience of asthma in a specific population of sport and exercise participants, drawing on an approach currently under-utilised in studies of asthma: vignettes. These were used as an elicitation technique in research with19 frequent exercisers and sports participants with asthma, eight of whom responded to vignette...

Despite being proposed four decades ago, little is known about the autotelic personality in sport and the possible role of individual differences on flow experiences. Extending upon previous research, the objective of the study was to examine the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and flow disposition. A quantitative approach was utilised t...

Abstract Objectives: Attending university can negatively impact students’ physical activity (PA). Identifying psychological correlates of students’ exercise barriers could enhance their PA, through appropriate interventions. Mental toughness (MT) has recently been explored in relation to PA. MT is associated with commitment, life control, and copi...

Students moving to university can experience a challenging transition; potentially leading to an unhealthy lifestyle, e.g., inadequate physical activity and poor diet. Individual differences are proposed to influence adherence to healthy lifestyle choices. One individual difference relating to healthy lifestyle adherence which has not yet been expl...

Objectives: In this study we aimed to better understand the occurrence and experience of flow in elite golf. As flow is more likely to occur during peak performances, and for elite athletes, our objectives were to: (i) identify golfers who achieved exceptional performances (e.g., winning a professional tournament), and (ii) explore if and how they...

This study examined relationships between mental toughness (MT) and psychological wellbeing (PWB) in undergraduate students. Following previous research that identified significant and positive relations between MT and academic performance, it was hypothesised that MT would predict PWB within a student population. Participants were undergraduate st...

Adhering a to diet programme to lose weight can be challenging. Individual differences are proposed to influence adherence to healthy lifestyle behaviours. One such difference, which has not yet been explored in relation to diet adherence, is mental toughness (MT). Emerging from sport research, MT has recently been identified as important in other...

Despite the limitations of overgeneralizing cutoff values for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; e.g., Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004), they are still often employed as golden rules for assessing factorial validity in sport and exercise psychology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the appropriateness of using the CFA approach with these cutoff...

Purpose: A new measure of sportspersonship, which differentiates between compliance and principled approaches, was developed and initially validated in 3 studies. Method: Study 1 developed items, assessed content validity, and proposed a model. Study 2 tested the factorial validity of the model on an independent sample. Study 3 further tested th...

Research into mental toughness has largely been confined to elite sport but should theoretically be important across other performance domains. We examined mental toughness in 161 first year sport students at a UK university using a self-report questionnaire (MTQ48). A measure of achievement (year grade) and progression (pass, fail, or re-sit) was...

Objectives: Research to date has identified a range of factors suggested to facilitate flow states in sport. However, less attention has focused on how those facilitating factors influence the occurrence of flow. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the specific ways in which such facilitators influenced flow occurrence in European Tour golf. De...

Recent research has highlighted concerns over the mental health of university students. All three years of standard undergraduate study has been identified as challenging and accompanied by multiple potential stressors. Nevertheless, individual differences can function as resistance resources and help buffer the potentially harmful effects of stres...

Although elite sport has provided an ideal context for exploring mental toughness (MT), currently, there is scant research examining how this construct might be equally applicable in exercise settings, where high rates of attrition have been reported. The present research, therefore, aimed to address this gap, and to understand and conceptualise ex...

This study explored perceptions regarding the experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1975) in elite golf; a sport which is different to those studied previously due to its self-paced, stop-start nature. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 European Tour golfers. Whereas the majority of previous studies have deductively coded da...

There is a dearth of research on how the physically active body is experienced during rehabilitation from serious illness. This paper presents data obtained through fourteen interviews completed with participants in a cardiac rehabilitation scheme. A figurational approach was utilised which emphasised the need for participants to delineate their ow...

There is a dearth of research on how the physically active body is experienced during rehabilitation from serious illness. The present study investigated older adults’ embodied experiences and changing perceptions of self in one cardiac rehabilitation (CR) scheme in the East of England. Fourteen interviews were completed with participants in a CR s...

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2159676X.2013.857708 The purpose of this qualitative study was to undertake an in-depth exploration of coaches’ and support staff perceptions regarding mental toughness and its development in the pressurised and distinctive sub-cultural milieu of an English Premier League (EPL) Soccer Academy. Semi-structu...

This article reviews approaches to studying sportspersonship, moral behavior in sport and broader morality theory to offer practical strategies to enhance fair play. By identifying stages and levels of morality and reviewing research supporting the relationship between goal orientations and moral behavior, we propose five practical strategies. Name...

The purpose of this study was to assess the factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002). In total, 8207 participants (male n = 4019, female n = 3922, unspecified = 266) aged between 16 and 68 years (M = 37.00, SD = 12.09) completed the MTQ48. Model fit was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (...

Within the theoretical framework of positive psychology, the effects of single sessions of low to moderate intensity walking on markers of psychological health were studied in two different green exercise environments. Participants were 83 recreational walkers (M age = 62.91, s = 9.33) who completed questionnaires to measure self-esteem and affecti...

Objectives This study aimed to provide an up-to-date summary of the literature on flow in elite sport, specifically relating to: (i) how flow is experienced; (ii) how these states occur; and (iii) the potential controllability of flow.DesignSystematic review.MethodsA comprehensive literature search of SPORTdiscus, PsycINFO, SAGE journals online, IN...

This short paper provides a response to an article that criticised the MTQ48. It outlines a number of technical and methodological inadequacies in the original paper. It discusses a number of methodological issues current in the existing literature.

The concept of mental toughness has been found to be related to outcome performance measures in sport and other competitive situations. Despite this, little attention has been devoted to understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie mental toughness. The current study attempted to identify the cognitive underpinnings of mental toughness usin...

Background: Significant proportions of school children in the UK do not meet the minimum recommended daily requirements of 60-min moderate-intensity physical activity. Beyond taught classes, playtimes offer the opportunity for children to play and be physically active. Painted markings are one recent addition to school playgrounds that are inexpens...

This study investigated the relationship between mental toughness and coping in an ultra-endurance (100km walk/run) event. A two-stage procedure was adopted: First, in situ data was collected during the early, middle and later stages of the Trailwalker UK event, with 12 participants asked to report how they were coping, and the personal attributes...

Twenty one English Premier League academy football players gave self-ratings of mental toughness two times during the competitive season. Two senior academy coaches also rated the player's levels of mental toughness using the same scale. Three important findings emerged: first, both player and coach ratings of mental toughness were found to be high...

Research on flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) has traditionally focused on reactive, externally-paced sports (e.g., tennis) without exploring those that are self-paced and stopstart in nature. This study investigated the occurrence of flow in a sample of thirteen elite golfers by conducting semi-structured interviews discussing: (i) their experiences o...

The aim of this study was to examine: (1) the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and coping self-efficacy (CSE), (2) the relationship between MT and coping effectiveness (CE), and (3) the extent to which MT and CSE predicted CE. Participants were 206 athletes (M age = 17.75 years, SD = 3.36) who completed a measure of MT and CSE prior to co...

Evidence suggests that regular walking can elicit significant psychological benefits, although little evidence exists concerning long distance walking. The purpose of this study was to provide detailed accounts of the experiences of long distance walkers. Phenomenological interviews were conducted with six long distance walkers. Data were transcrib...

This article reviews recent evidence concerning the development of mental toughness in young athletes, from first involvement in sport through to early adulthood. The role and importance of genetics, environmental factors, and psychological-skills training in the development of mental toughness is discussed. In particular, environmental factors tha...

Athletes, coaches, and applied sports psychologists have consistently referred to mental toughness as one of the most important psychological characteristics related to outcomes and success in elite sport, although researchers have, until recently, devoted little time to studying this concept. This review considers some of the emerging definitions...

This paper tested relations between two measures of mental toughness. A sample of 110 male athletes (M age=20.81years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that scales and subscales from the two different inst...

This article tested the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow. A sample of 135 athletes (M age=20.81 years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing questionnaires to assess MT and dispositional flow. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and pos...

Background: Kenyan marathon runners are one of the most dominant forces in worldwide sport, attracting considerable research attention across disciplines. While past research has focused upon physiological differences when compared to other groups of runners, little attention has been given to psychological processes involved in the Kenyans' unpara...

This study investigated mental toughness in an English Premier League football academy. 112 football players aged between 12 and 18 years of age completed the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 18 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002) as a measure of mental toughness. A cross-sectional design was used to test for differences in mental toughness across age gr...

This paper tested the relationship between mental toughness and attitudes towards risk-taking in undergraduate student athletes attending two Universities in the North of England. A sample of 69 men (M age=22.2years, s=5.28) and 36 women (M age=24.6years, s=7.67) participated and ranged from club to national level in a variety of sports. Participan...

In this study, we assessed the relationship between mental toughness and athletes' use of psychological performance strategies. Sixty-seven male (mean age 22.6 years, s=5.0) and 40 female (mean age 21.1 years, s=2.8) athletes, who competed at club/university to national standard in a variety of sports, participated in the study. Participants comple...

Mentally tough athletes are conceptualized as being able to function effectively in stressful situations and recent research has found small to moderate correlations between mental toughness and coping. Despite this no research has thus far examined the possibility that mentally tough athletes experience less intense emotions. This paper tested the...

This study examined the leadership preferences of mentally tough athletes. A sample of 103 athletes (M age = 22.06 years, SD = 4.37) participated and ranged from club/university level to county standard in a variety of team sports. Participants completed the Leadership Scale for Sport – Preference Version (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978) to measure pref...

This paper provides a review of mental toughness research and examines the major conceptual concerns that are evident in current mental toughness literature. Despite more rigorous scientific approaches to the study of mental toughness, a number of limitations are apparent: these include the assumption that elite or super elite performers are mental...

This study examined regular exercisers' perceptions of specific components of music during circuit training. Twenty-four men (38.8 years, s = 11.8 years) and 31 women (32.4 years, s = 9.6 years) completed two questionnaires immediately after a circuit training class. Participants rated the importance of 13 components of music (rhythm, melody, etc.)...

In this study, we examined participants' responses to motivational asynchronous music by isolating rhythmical properties and exploring personality correlates. Fifty-eight physically active participants (41 men and 17 women) aged 22.3 +/- 6.4 years performed an isometric weight-holding task on three occasions while being randomly exposed to no music...

This paper critiques the position of researchers and theorists who have called for greater recognition of a spiritual dimension in sport, an integration of spiritual dimensions into existing sport-related models, and applications in sport psychology consultancy (Udermann, 2000; Watson & Nesti, 2005). Definitions of spirituality and the relationship...

This study tested the criterion validity of the inventory, Mental Toughness 48, by assessing the correlation between mental toughness and physical endurance for 41 male undergraduate sports students. A significant correlation of .34 was found between scores for overall mental toughness and the time a relative weight could be held suspended. Results...

To assess effects of familiarity of music on treadmill endurance, 15 female undergraduates in sports science performed an incremental treadmill walking task on three separate occasions while listening to Familiar Music, Unfamiliar Music, and White Noise. A repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that participants walked for significantly l...

This study tested the effects of exposure to self-selected motivational music both prior to and during performance of a muscular endurance task. 27 male undergraduate students in sports science completed an isometric weight-holding task on two separate occasions while listening either to self-selected motivational music or white noise. Participants...

This study examined the role of music and distraction on the performance of a visual search task (grid test) for 57 volunteer sports science undergraduates (M = 21.6 yr., SD = 3.0), comprising 39 men and 18 women who were subsequently classified as either high or low in Affect Intensity (responsiveness to emotional stimuli). Participants were instr...

Despite considerable research into psychological momentum in sports, researchers and theorists still appear to be divided on whether the concept is real or illusionary (Burke, Edwards, Weigard & Weinberg, 1997). This seems to be based on inconsistent evidence regarding the relationship between perceived momentum and actual performance. Researchers...

This paper reviews research on leadership in sport and considers the implications of this work in relation to the complex task of effective football management. Trait, behavioral and interactional models of leadership are discussed and applied to football management. The importance of sport specific models and research is also highlighted. The need...