Lars Mcnaughton

• PhD, BEd, MSc, MBA, Dip Tch
• Head of Department at Edge Hill University

The Wattbike Pro ergometer (Wattbike) is readily available and widely used by athletes, coaches, and researchers as a tool for cycling performance assessment. To date, no literature has reported the test-reliability of relevant performance criterion using the Wattbike and a 10-mile (16.1 km) TT - which is the most prevalent race distance, often com...

Enhanced buffering capacity following sodium citrate (SC) ingestion may be optimized when subsequent exercise commences at individual time-to-peak (TTP) alkalosis (blood pH or bicarbonate concentration [HCO 3 ⁻ ]). While accounting for considerable interindividual variation in TTP (188–300 min), a reliable blood alkalotic response is required for p...

Abstract: The 16.1 km cycling time trial (TT) is the most popular distance covered by competitive cyclists in the United Kingdom, despite its prevalence, limited literature has actively investigated the changes in physiological and perceptual responses which occur in cool (15°C) and hot (28.5°C) environmental conditions. Exercise within warm enviro...

To investigate inter-individual differences in muscle thickness of Rectus Femoris (MTRF) following 12 weeks of Resistance Training (RT) or High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) to explore the genetic architecture underlying skeletal muscle hypertrophy and to construct predictive models. We conducted musculoskeletal ultrasound assessments of the M...

Oxidative stress is a key contributing factor in neurodegeneration, cognitive ageing, cognitive decline, and diminished cognitive longevity. Issues stemming from oxidative stress both in relation to cognition and other areas, such as inflammation, skin health, eye health, and general recovery, have been shown to benefit greatly from antioxidant use...

Exercise in warm and hot environmental conditions often leads to a decrease in power output, total time-to-fatigue, and a greater physiological strain than in cooler environments. These changes are proposed to occur due to a greater reliance on ATP production from anaerobic energy systems, leading to elevations in extracellular lactate and perceive...

Purpose: The use of sodium bicarbonate (SB) as a pre-exercise ergogenic aid has been extensively studied in short duration high intensity exercise. Very few studies have considered the effects of SB ingestion prior to prolonged high intensity exercise. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of a 0.3 g·kg-1 Body mass (BM) dose of...

Purpose Sodium bicarbonate (SB) supplementation can improve exercise performance, but few studies consider how effective it is in female athletes. The aim of the study was to establish the effect of individually timed pre-exercise SB ingestion on 2 km rowing time trial (TT) performance in female athletes. Methods Eleven female CrossFit® athletes (...

Background Extracellular buffering supplements [sodium bicarbonate (SB), sodium citrate (SC), sodium/calcium lactate (SL/CL)] are ergogenic supplements, although questions remain about factors which may modify their effect. Objective To quantify the main effect of extracellular buffering agents on exercise outcomes, and to investigate the influenc...

As a nitric oxide (NO) enhancer, citrulline malate (CM) has recently been touted as a potential ergogenic aid to both resistance and high-intensity exercise performance, as well as the recovery of muscular performance. The mechanism has been associated with enhanced blood flow to active musculature, however, it might be more far-reaching as either...

Introduction Physeal injuries have been overlooked in epidemiological research in youth sports. Our prospective study investigated the incidence, severity, and burden of physeal injuries in a youth elite football academy. Methods 551 youth male football players from Under-9 to Under-19 were included and observed over four consecutive seasons. Inju...

The timing of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) supplementation has been suggested to be most optimal when coincided with a personal time that bicarbonate (HCO3–) or pH peaks in the blood following ingestion. However, the ergogenic mechanisms supporting this ingestion strategy are strongly contested. It is therefore plausible that NaHCO3 may be ergogenic...

To compare the pharmokinetic and gastrointestinal (GI) symptom responses between an equal dose of sodium bicarbonate and sodium citrate using delayed-release capsules. Thirteen active males (age 20.5 ± 2.1 y, height 1.82 ± 0.1 m and body mass 76.5 ± 9.6 kg) consumed either 0.3 g.kg−1 BM sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate or a placebo, using a doubl...

Background Contemporary research suggests that the optimal timing of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) should be based upon an individual time in which bicarbonate (HCO 3 ⁻ ) or pH peaks within the blood. However, the mechanisms surrounding acidosis on exercise performance are contested, therefore it is plausible that the ergogenic effects of NaHCO 3 a...

Background The association between injury risk and skeletal maturity in youth soccer has received little attention. Purpose To prospectively investigate injury patterns and incidence in relation to skeletal maturity in elite youth academy soccer players and to determine the injury risks associated with the skeletal maturity status, both overall an...

Introduction: Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is a well-established nutritional ergogenic aid that is typically ingested as a beverage or consumed in gelatine capsules. While capsules may delay the release of NaHCO3 and reduce gastrointestinal (GI) side effects compared with a beverage, it is currently unclear whether the capsule size may influence aci...

Sodium bicarbonate (SB) is considered an effective ergogenic supplement for improving high-intensity exercise capacity and performance, although recent data suggests that women may be less amenable to its ergogenic effects than men. Currently, an apparent paucity of data on women means no consensus exists on whether women benefit from SB supplement...

Objective Investigate the incidence and burden of injuries by age group in youth football (soccer) academy players during four consecutive seasons. Methods All injuries that caused time-loss or required medical attention (as per consensus definitions) were prospectively recorded in 551 youth football players from under 9 years to under 19 years. I...

PurposeEnteric-coated sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) can attenuate gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms following acute bicarbonate loading, although the subsequent effects on exercise performance have not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of enteric-coated NaHCO3 supplementation on high-intensity exercise performance a...

Objectives This study aimed to investigate whether supplementation with 12 mg⋅day⁻¹ astaxanthin for 7 days can improve exercise performance and metabolism during a 40 km cycling time trial. Design A randomised, double-blind, crossover design was employed. Methods Twelve recreationally trained male cyclists (VO2peak: 56.5 ± 5.5 mL⋅ kg⁻¹⋅ min⁻¹, Wm...

Background: In the elderly, low protein intake exacerbates the effects of sarcopenia and anabolic resistance. Protein supplementation to maximise muscle protein synthesis, may be an effective intervention. Aim: To determine the effects of a low/high dose of protein, ingested immediately post-exercise, during resistance training in novice elderly m...

Enteric-formulated capsules can mitigate gastrointestinal (GI) side effects following sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) ingestion; however, it remains unclear how encapsulation alters postingestion symptoms and acid–base balance. The current study aimed to identify the optimal ingestion form to mitigate GI distress following NaHCO 3 ingestion. Trained...

The use of post-exercise sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to promote recovery and improve subsequent exercise performance is an emerging ergogenic strategy, which is due to the potential to increase recovery of blood pH and bicarbonate (HCO3−) between two bouts of exercise. Such increases could improve removal of hydrogen ions (H+) and provide a greater...

Research investigating nutritional ergogenic aid strategies that delay the occurrence of metabolic acidosis during high intensity exercise have been widely investigated. The exogenous enhancement of the bicarbonate (HCO3-) buffering system is believed to offset fatigue, by attenuating hydrogen cation (H+) increases. Ingestion of sodium bicarbonate...

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of post-exercise sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion (0.3 g.kg⁻¹ body mass) on the recovery of acid-base balance (pH, HCO3-, and the SID) and subsequent exercise performance in elite boxers. Seven elite male professional boxers performed an initial bout of exhaustive exercise comprising of a boxing...

This chapter explores the use of exogenous buffering agents as possible ergogenic aids. A review of the recent developments in the use of sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate and sodium phosphate are discussed in relation to the most effective strategies, applications and their potential mechanisms of ergogenicity. The potential safety and legality o...

This review examines the issues surrounding soccer nutrition, including the nature of the game, training, and how nutrition can play a significant role in improving player performance and recovery. In soccer match-play, a total distance covered of up to 13 km is characterised by an acyclical and intermittent activity profile. The aerobic system is...

This study aimed to assess the thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses of WC basketball players during international competitions. Eleven female (7 spinal cord injured (SCI) and 4 Non-SCI) National team WC basketball players volunteered for the study. Testing occurred during a four-game series against the same international competitor (temp 2...

This study evaluated the chronic effects of nitrate (NO3⁻) ingestion over three days, on 40 km TT performance in 11trained cyclists (VO2max: 60.8 ± 7.4 ml.kg⁻¹.min⁻¹; age: 36 ± 9 years; height: 1.80 ± 0.06 m; body mass: 87.2 ± 12.0 kg). Utilising a double-blind randomised cross-over design, participants completed three 40 km TT on a Velotron® ergom...

Background Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is a well-established nutritional ergogenic aid, though gastrointestinal (GI) distress is a common side-effect. Delayed-release NaHCO3 may alleviate GI symptoms and enhance bicarbonate bioavailability following oral ingestion, although this has yet to be confirmed. Methods In a randomised crossover design, ph...

This study investigated the effects of two separate doses of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) on 4 km time trial (TT) cycling performance and post-exercise acid base balance recovery in hypoxia. Fourteen club-level cyclists completed four cycling TT’s, followed by a 40 min passive recovery in normobaric hypoxic conditions (FiO2 = 14.5%) following one of...

Research has outlined how self-regulation is crucial to the decision-making processes and pacing of endurance performance. There is evidence to suggest that executive function is implicated in self-regulatory processes, as the two are conceptually similar and share common brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. This review draws upon various r...

The reasons for suboptimal nutritional intake within ultra-endurance competitions are not fully understood. Therefore, the current programme of research discusses the findings from a series of studies that explored the factors that influence the competitive food choices of ultra-endurance athletes. Study 1 indicated that nutrition knowledge was not...

Purpose Exacerbated hydrogen cation (H⁺) production is suggested to be a key determinant of fatigue in acute hypoxic conditions. This study, therefore, investigated the effects of NaHCO3 ingestion on repeated 4 km TT cycling performance and post-exercise acid–base balance recovery in acute moderate hypoxic conditions. Methods Ten male trained cycl...

Acute sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) supplementation has been widely used in an attempt to improve sports performance. However, the efficacy of this supplement in an acute, moderately hypoxic environment remains equivocal however, with respect to both performance enhancement and the recovery rate of post-exercise acid-base balance. The aim of this stu...

Inadequate nutritional intake has been reported during ultra-endurance training and competition. While substandard nutritional knowledge may contribute to inappropriate nutritional choices, the relationship between these variables is often weak. As such, this study investigated the importance of a range of factors to the food choices of ultra-endur...

Eccentric hamstring strength is an aetiological risk factor for soccer injury. The temporal pattern of recovery post-exercise is critical in injury management. 18 male professional soccer players completed baseline assessments of eccentric hamstring strength at isokinetic speeds of 60, 150 and 300°· s⁻¹. Post SAFT⁹⁰ measures were repeated immediate...

This investigation assessed the effect of dietary nitrate (NO3⁻) supplementation, in the form of beetroot juice (BR), on repeat-sprint performance in normoxia and normobaric hypoxia. 12 male team-sport athletes (age 22.3 ± 2.6 y, VO2peak 53.1 ± 8.7 mL.kg⁻¹.min⁻¹) completed three exercise trials involving a 10 min submaximal warm-up and 4 sets of cy...

The use of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) as an ergogenic aid has been widespread in athletic populations where high intensity, relatively short duration activity, is an important component of performance. The traditional ingestion time for this pre-exercise ergogenic buffering agent, is typically between 60-120 minutes before the start of exercise, u...

Blood alkalosis, as indicated by an increased blood bicarbonate concentration and pH, has been shown to be beneficial for exercise performance. Sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, and sodium or calcium lactate, can all result in increased circulating bicarbonate and have all independently been shown to improve exercise capacity and performance unde...

Bridge, CA, Sparks, SA, McNaughton, LR, Close, GL, Hausen, M, Gurgel, J, and Drust, B. Repeated exposure to taekwondo combat modulates the physiological and hormonal responses to subsequent bouts and recovery periods. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-This study examined the physiological and hormonal responses to successive taekwondo combat...

The nutritional intake of ultra-endurance athletes during competition is often poorly matched with energy requirements. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the sports nutrition knowledge of ultra-endurance athletes. Knowledge was assessed using a modified, valid and reliable sports nutrition questionnaire. Four independent assessors...

Acute moderate hypoxic exposure can substantially impair exercise performance, which occurs with a concurrent exacerbated rise in hydrogen cation (H+) production. The purpose of this study was therefore, to alleviate this acidic stress through sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) supplementation and determine the corresponding effects on severe intensity in...

Soccer presents a metabolic challenge which is not necessarily matched by players’ habitual dietary intake. To examine the effects of a bespoke diet, 22 players completed the Ball Sport Endurance and Sprint Test (BEAST90mod) protocol, followed by 4 days of regulated nutritional intake. The diet consisted of 10 g∙kg−1 body mass (BM) and 1.7 g∙kg−1 B...

During periods of heavy exercise training and competition, lipid, protein, and nucleic molecules can become damaged due to an overproduction of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) within the exercising organism. As antioxidants can prevent and delay cellular oxidative damage through removing, deactivating, and preventing the formation of RO...

Objective: To quantify the effects of acute hypoxic exposure on exercise capacity and performance, which includes continuous and intermittent forms of exercise. Design: A systematic review was conducted with a three-level mixed effects meta-regression. The ratio of means method was used to evaluate main effects and moderators providing practical in...

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) on 4 km cycling time trial (TT) performance when individualised to a predetermined time to peak blood bicarbonate (HCO3−). Eleven male trained cyclists volunteered for this study (height 1.82 ± 0.80 m, body mass (BM) 86.4 ± 12.9 kg, age 32 ± 9 years, peak power outp...

Background: Current evidence suggests sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) should be ingested based upon the individualised alkalotic peak of either blood pH or bicarbonate (HCO3−) because of large inter-individual variations (10–180 min). If such a strategy is to be practical, the blood analyte response needs to be reproducible. Objective: This study aimed...

Background: Individual time to peak blood bicarbonate (HCO3(-)) has demonstrated good to excellent reproducibility following ingestion of both 0.2 g kg(-1) body mass (BM) and 0.3 g kg(-1) BM sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), but the consistency of the time trial (TT) performance response using such an individualised NaHCO3 ingestion strategy remains un...

Fifty-nine men completed a VO2max test and a questionnaire to establish reasons for test termination, perceived exercise reserve (difference between actual test duration and the duration the individual perceived could have been achieved if continued until physical limitation), and perception of verbal encouragement. Participants gave between 1 and...

Purpose: This study investigated the effect of induced alkalosis on the curvature constant (W’) of the power-duration relationship under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Methods: Eleven trained cyclists (mean ± SD) Age: 32 ± 7.2 years; body mass (bm): 77.0 ± 9.2 kg; VO2peak: 59.2 ± 6.8 ml·kg−1·min−1 completed seven laboratory visits which involved...

PURPOSE: Recently it has been suggested, that an individualised sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion strategy might be the most appropriate method to elicit a state of peak alkalosis. Such a strategy can then be used to “marry up” time to peak alkalosis with the performance required. However, such ingestion strategies have displayed large inter-in...

Purpose: To use eye-tracking technology to directly compare information acquisition behavior of experienced and novice cyclists during a self-paced 10 mile (16.1 km) time-trial. Method: Two groups of novice (N=10) and experienced cyclists (N=10) performed a 10-mile self-paced time-trial (TT) on two separate occasions during which a number of feedb...

Laboratory based cycling time trials (TT) are widely used by both researchers and practitioners, as a method of assessing cycling performance in a controlled environment. Assessments of performance often use TT durations or distances between 20 min and one hour and in the UK the 10 mile (16.1 km) TT is the most frequently used race distance for tra...

This study determined variability in time-to-peak pH after consumption of 300 mg kg(-)(1) of sodium bicarbonate. Seventeen participants (mean ± SD: age 21.38 ± 1.5 years; mass 75.8 ± 5.8 kg; height 176.8 ± 7.6 cm) reported to the laboratory where a resting capillary sample was taken. Then, 300 mg kg(-1) of NaHCO3 in 450 ml of flavoured water was in...

Stretching, either prior to exercise or at the end, or both, is typically carried out by all individuals undertaking sporting activity whether they be elite or recreational athletes. The many forms of stretching available to the athlete, either passive or active, have long been thought to improve performance, decrease injury and generally be advant...

Critical power (CP) demarcates the boundary between heavy and severe exercise intensities. The severe exercise intensi- ties, between CP and VO2peak, are described by W′, which represents the work capacity above CP. Determinants of W′, and associated limitations to high-intensity exercise above CP, are not fully understood. Therefore, the purpose o...

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is ingested 60–90 min prior to exercise to elicit peak alkalosis. Recent evidence has shown an inter-individual variation following an individua- lised ingestion strategy (range 10–180 min). Nonetheless, it remains to be elucidated whether the HCO3− and pH response are reproducible following NaHCO3 ingestion on more than...

Little is currently known regarding competitor influence on pacing at the start of an event and in particular the subsequent effect on the remaining distance. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of starting pace on the physiological and psychological responses during cycling time trials (TT) utilizing an innovative app...

Taurine (TAU) has been shown to improve exercise time to exhaustion and 3-km running performance; however, no studies have considered the effect of acute TAU ingestion on short duration cycling time trial (TT) performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a single oral acute dose of 1000 mg of TAU on a laboratory simulated 4-km...

The provision of performance-related feedback during exercise is acknowledged as an influential external cue used to inform pacing decisions. The provision of this feedback in a challenging or deceptive context allows research to explore how feedback can be used to improve performance and influence perceptual responses. However, the effects of dece...

Objectives: Feedback deception is used to explore the importance of expectations on pacing strategy and performance in self-paced exercise. The deception of feedback from a previous performance explores the importance of experience knowledge on exercise behaviour. This study aimed to explore the acute and residual effects of the deception of previo...

Objective. Considerable energy deficits are commonly reported during ultra-endurance competition periods. This poses a potential risk to the performance and health of the athlete, especially for multi-day events. The aim of this study was to determine the factors that influence athlete’s food choices in order to provide valuable insight into potent...

This review examines the current status of sodium bicarbonate as an ergogenic aid. It builds on previous reviews in the area. Current research would suggest that as an ergogenic aid, a 300 mg·kg dose of NaHCO3 can improve high-intensity exercise, within a range of exercise modalities, such as a single bout of supramaximal exercise, high-intensity i...

Studies have established that supplementation of nitrate increases nitrous oxide which in turn improves exercise performance. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of nitrate ingestion on performance of bench press resistance exercise till failure. Twelve recreationally active (age, 21 ± 2yrs, height, 177.2 ± 4.0 cm, weight, 82.49 ± 9....

Background: Obesity, physical inactivity, and reduced physical fitness contribute to the rising burden of chronic diseases in China. We investigated these factors in Chinese adults over a 14-year period (2000-14) using data from randomised national surveys. Methods: We did four national surveys in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2014 among Chinese adults...

This work examined the influence of an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) on buffering capacity and performance during a repeated sprint ability (RSA) protocol. Eleven (mean +/- SD: age 24.6 +/- 6.1y; mass 74.9 +/- 5.7kg; height 177.2 +/- 6.7cm) participated in the study, undertaking four test sessions. On the first visit to the laboratory,...

Sodium phosphate (SP) and beetroot juice (BJ) supplementation was assessed on repeated-sprint ability (RSA). Thirteen female team-sport participants completed four trials: (1) SP and BJ (SP + BJ), (2) SP and placebo (for BJ), (3) BJ and placebo (for SP) and (4) placebo (for SP + BJ), with ~21 days separating each trial. After each trial, participan...

Deceptive manipulations of performance intensity have previously been investigated in cycling time trials (TT), but used different magnitudes, methods and task durations. This study examines previously employed magnitudes of deception, during 16.1 km TT and explores as yet unexamined psychological responses. Fifteen trained cyclists completed five...

The effects of sodium phosphate and caffeine supplementation were assessed on repeated-sprint ability. Using a randomised, double-blind, Latin-square design, 12 female, team-sport players participated in four trials: (1) sodium phosphate and caffeine, (2) sodium phosphate and placebo (for caffeine), (3) caffeine and placebo (for sodium phosphate) a...

The purpose of this study was to investigate excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) induced by isocaloric bouts of continuous and intermittent running and cycling exercise. This was a counterbalanced randomized cross-over study. Ten healthy men, aged 23-34yr, performed six bouts of exercise: (a) two maximal cardiopulmonary exercise tests for...

This work sought to determine the fitness responses and energy expenditure (EE) following once-weekly hill climbing for 16 weeks on different slopes. A cohort of 98 healthy, sedentary subjects (49 female, 49 male) completed the program at their preferred climbing pace. Body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR) and VO2max were measured. EE was...

Context: Successful training involves structured overload but must avoid the combination of excessive overload and inadequate recovery. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of functional overreaching (FOR), nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR), and overtraining syndrome in elite female wrestlers during their normal traini...

To quantify the influence of soccer-specific fatigue on reactive dynamic balance, ten male professional soccer players (age 24.7 ± 4.4 yr, body mass 77.1 ± 8.3 kg, VO2max 63.0 ± 4.8 ml·kg·min(-1)) completed an exercise protocol replicating the activity profile of match-play. Pre-exercise, and at 15 min intervals, players completed three balance tas...

This study investigated the effects of three doses of sodium phosphate (SP) supplementation on cycling 500 kJ (119.5 Kcal) time trial (TT) performance in female cyclists. Thirteen cyclists participated in a randomised, Latin-square design study where they completed four separate trials after ingesting either a placebo, or one of three different dos...

The psychological construct of affect is proposed to significantly contribute to pacing decisions during exercise. Borg's Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, another important regulator of work-rate, is criticised as an inadequate measure of the multiple perceptual responses experienced. This study aimed to examine power output distribution...

Objectives Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechanisms influencing the change in selected work rates during direct competition have been suggested but not specifically assessed. The aim was to investigate the physiological and psychological influences of a visual avatar competitor during a 16.1-km cycli...