Klaus Bengler

• Technical University of Munich

The appropriate usage of automated driving systems must be learned, with the learning process supposedly tied to the continuous engagement of the driver with the system. Despite extensive research on the short-term effects of automated driving systems, there is limited understanding of the long-term usage and the adaptation processes involved. This...

Studies show that shared automated vehicles (SAV) can increase public acceptance of automation and enable affordable on-demand mobility. However, the varying levels of knowledge about driver assistance systems (DAS) among users of automated vehicles can lead to their underuse or misuse. With the concept of vehicle sharing, familiarity with DAS vari...

Very high levels of automation in road traffic are accompanied by the need for teleoperation. If the driverless autonomous vehicle is not able to solve a complex driving situation, then the problem should be solved by a teleoperated intervention by getting a human into the loop. Such a system is highly complex, interacting in a socio-technical syst...

Zusammenfassung Durch die zunehmende Automatisierung und Digitalisierung von Produktionsprozessen ist eine effiziente Kommunikation und Koordination in Agentensystemen von entscheidender Bedeutung. Diese Studie analysiert die Verzögerungszeiten der Kommunikations- und Koordinationsprozesse in Agentensystemen anhand von zwei industriellen Anwendungs...

In the industrial sector, products evolve significantly over their operational life. A key challenge has been maintaining precise, relevant engineering data. This paper explores the digital twin concept, merging engineering and operational data to enhance product information updates. It examines digital twin applications in construction, material f...

Mental models influence how we interact with our environment and help us form expectations. The attitude toward a robot can influence how we interact with it. This study examines video-based positive and negative framing of a delivery robot. 102 participants reported their attitude toward robots on the Negative Attitudes toward Robots Scale (NARS)...

This document contains additional information to the IEA 2024 conference paper "Video-based framing can alter the negative attitude toward service robots". All parts are referenced in the original paper, which had to be shortened due to restrictive page limits. Abstract. Mental models influence how we interact with our environment and help us form...

Automated vehicles are pictured as the future of transportation, and facilitating safer driving is only one of the many benefits. However, due to the constantly changing role of the human driver, users are easily confused and have little knowledge about their responsibilities. Being the bridge between automation and human, the human-machine interfa...

Human-machine Interface (HMI) is critical for safety during automated driving, as it serves as the only media between the automated system and human users. To enable a transparent HMI, we first need to know how to evaluate it. However, most of the assessment methods used for HMI designs are subjective and thus not efficient. To bridge the gap, an o...

This report summarises the work and valuable contributions of a large group of experts and the many constructive discussions over the course of 2022 and 2023.

Der vorliegende Bericht fasst die Arbeit und die wertvollen Beiträge einer großen Expertengruppe sowie die Vielzahl an konstruktiven Diskussionen im Laufe der Jahre 2022 und 2023 zusammen.

The foot-in-the-door is a sequential request strategy (Freedman and Fraser, 1966): The probability of compliance with a larger request increases if a smaller request is submitted in advance. We conducted three studies in different experimental settings investigating the foot-in-the-door (FITD) effect in human-robot interaction (HRI): An online ques...

This paper summarizes the research on countermeasures against driver fatigue based on a comprehensive systematic literature review. Driver fatigue, induced by task monotony during conditional automated driving (CAD, SAE Level 3), can increase the risk of road accidents. There are several measures that counteract driver fatigue and aim to reduce the...

In response to the growing trend of automation on German roads, this expert test explores the challenges of implementing partially automated driving systems in urban environments. Drawing on the experiences of Human factors experts, the research explores user preferences across diverse traffic scenarios, utilizing the Tesla Full Self-Driving System...

Objective It is currently still unknown why some drivers with visual field loss can compensate well for their visual impairment while others adopt ineffective strategies. This paper contributes to the methodological investigation of the associated top-down mechanisms and aims at validating a theoretical model on the requirements for successful comp...

This paper proposes a three-step procedure to systematically include human operators in the development and design process of an assistance system for complex construction machinery. The central element of the procedure is the collection of mental models to gain validated information on the context of use and the human-machine interaction from the...

Identifying individual driving strategies often relies on theoretical task models, arbitrary group divisions, or somewhat untransparent evaluations by instructors. We propose using cluster analysis as an exploratory, data-driven approach to categorize drivers based on their driving and scanning behavior. Therefore, we analyzed a combination of vari...

Due to advances in artificial intelligence (AI), humans are increasingly facing algorithm-generated content in everyday applications. To avoid threads to the system’s transparency and trustworthiness, the approach of explainable AI (XAI) will play an important role when designing these systems tied to the needs and characteristics of their end-user...

This paper investigates participants’ perceptions and preferences regarding different cooperative intervention features for automated driving with level 2 driving automation. The experiment conducted involved 40 participants. A Kano questionnaire and a semi-standardized interview were employed to collect participants’ feedback on features for inter...

As automation increases qualitatively and quantitatively in safety-critical human cyber-physical systems, it is becoming more and more challenging to increase the probability or ensure that human operators still perceive key artefacts and comprehend their roles in the system. In the companion paper, we proposed an abstract reference architecture ca...

Learnability in Automated Driving (LiAD) is a neglected research topic, especially when considering the unpredictable and intricate ways humans learn to interact and use automated driving systems (ADS) over the sequence of time. Moreover, there is a scarcity of publications dedicated to LiAD (specifically extended learnability methods) to guide the...

The design and analysis of multi-agent human cyber-physical systems in safety-critical or industry-critical domains calls for an adequate semantic foundation capable of exhaustively and rigorously describing all emergent effects in the joint dynamic behavior of the agents that are relevant to their safety and well-behavior. We present such a semant...

We propose a reference architecture of safety-critical or industry-critical human cyber-physical systems (CPSs) capable of expressing essential classes of system-level interactions between CPS and humans relevant for the societal acceptance of such systems. To reach this quality gate, the expressivity of the model must go beyond classical viewpoint...

This study investigated the effects of two text-based framings (‘social’ vs. ‘technical’) of a robot. We aimed to discover whether a robot framed as ‘social’ is perceived as more social and whether it is more persuasive. We used the Desert Survival Problem to create a task the robot and participant solved together. We found no significant differenc...

The COVID-19 pandemic engendered massive restrictions in all areas of our social and work lives. Companies and organizations have had to make extensive adjustments to their working conditions and processes. Fifty-two interviews at 33 companies and organizations were conducted to gain insights to help companies and organizations to cope with the pan...

Various robot-related, environmental and human factors influence the proxemics and the quality and perception of human-robot interactions (HRIs). This paper focuses on a selection of the most relevant robot-related factors: size, speed, and the robot’s edge shape, which were systematically varied in two consecutive experiments. This gives important...

Automated vehicles are equipped with systems for task operation and furnished with complex sensor-based systems for detecting and avoiding crashes. However, because technology is unruly and prone to error due to its low maturity level, the human is required to be an active member and collaborator in the operation of the vehicle. As a result, users...

A mixed traffic consisting of manual and automated vehicles will be part of reality in the near future. Vehicles of higher automation levels, which will have the ability to perform minimal risk maneuvers, will also participate in this traffic. Previous research in this area has focused on the interaction within the automated vehicle and a change of...

The aim of the project was to evaluate a technical diversion method for vehicles at control points within the scope of stationary controls of the Federal Office for Goods Transport (BAG) in order to replace manual rejection by control personnel in the future. The technology, consisting of an operating station, camera technology and a control unit,...

So far, there has been little research into displaying the availability of a higher-level automated driving system. The benefits of presenting availability times while driving automatically have already been discussed, but there are no findings on giving information on all availability sections (operational design domains) independent of the curren...

This report on the project Level 2 hands-off (L2H-off), commissioned by VDA to fka GmbH with the three subcontractors Institute for Automotive Engineering (ika) of RWTH Aachen University, Chair of Ergonomics (LfE) of the Technical University of Munich and fka Silicon Valley Inc., has been composed with the intention to allow VDA and its members as...

The TEC-Model (Teaching Engineers Creativity) is a recursive process model that has been developed to systematically teach a Human-Centered and iterative working style for creative problem solving to students in engineering disciplines. The model builds upon established iterative design processes with multiple phases, such as Design Thinking, the U...

Minimal risk maneuvers (MRMs), as part of highly automated systems, aim at minimizing the risk during a transition phase from automated to manual driving. Previous studies show that many drivers have an urge to intervene in transition phases despite the system’s capability to safely come to a standstill. A human–machine interface (HMI) concept was...

The development of exoskeletons is currently a lengthy process full of challenges. We are proposing a framework to accelerate the process and make the resulting exoskeletons more user-centered. The needed accomplishments in science are described in an effort to lay the foundation for future research projects. Since the early 2000s, exoskeletons hav...

Over the past years, numerous studies have paved the way towards a better understanding of human-automation interaction (HAI). However, there is neglect in research that focuses on the long-term effects of automation on user behaviour. The reason behind this has been highly emphasised. As, long-term research is one of the most critically challengin...

Real‐time recognition of non‐driving behaviors is of great importance in conditionally automated driving, as it determines the takeover time budget, which in turn has a huge impact on the performance of the takeover. Here, a novel real‐time non‐driving behavior recognition system (RNBRS) integrating self‐powered, low‐cost, easy‐to‐manufacture tribo...

Many studies on effects of non-driving related tasks in the context of SAE Level 3 automated driving have been conducted in driving simulator settings applying standardized tasks. Thereby internal validity is favored over external validity. To assess the influence of engagement in three natural non-driving related tasks on takeover behavior in the...

With the automation of the driving task a long vision seems to come true. A closer look reveals that most of the steps until now have been technology oriented and a more humanHumans-centered approach would be reasonable. The contribution shows that different taxonomiesTaxonomies would enable more humanHumans oriented role models between users and a...

There are public debates concerning the meaning highly automated vehicles (HAVs) will possess in society and on road social interactions, with the topic of autonomy being frequently stressed. The de-contextualised and abstract discussion has influenced the development of the on-road Multi-Agent Social Interaction (MASI) concept. By addressing socia...

The responsibility and role of human drivers during automated driving might change dynamically. In such cases, human-machine interface (HMI) transparency becomes crucial to facilitate driving safety, as the states of the automated vehicle have to be communicated correctly and efficiently. However, there is no standardized transparency assessment me...

Speech is considered a promising modality for human-machine interaction while driving, especially in reducing visual and manual distraction. However, speech-based user interfaces themselves have shown to increase cognitive distraction. There remains a lack of standardized and unambiguous methods for measuring the impact of speech-based assistants o...

With the introduction of Level 3 and 4 automated driving, the engagement in a variety of non-driving related activities (NDRAs) will become legal. Previous research has shown that users desire information about the remaining time in automated driving mode and system status information to plan and terminate their activity engagement. In past studies...

Over the past two decades, systemic-based risk assessment methods have garnered more attention, and their use and popularity are growing. In particular, the functional resonance analysis method (FRAM) is one of the most widely used systemic methods for risk assessment and accident analysis. FRAM has been progressively evolved since its starting poi...

Efficient airconditioning concepts play an important role in current and future vehicles, especially in the context of electromobility. Since the seat represents the largest contact surface with the human body, it can contribute to efficient and local cooling of the occupant. The Chair of Ergonomics, Technical University of Munich, in cooperation w...

With Level 3 and 4 automated driving activated, users will be allowed to engage in a wide range of non-driving related activities (NDRAs). Although Level 2 automation can appear very similar to L3 and L4, drivers are required to always monitor the system. However, past research has found drivers neglect this obligation at least partly and instead e...

Background Research on task performance under visual field loss is often limited due to small and heterogenous samples. Simulations of visual impairments hold the potential to account for many of those challenges. Digitally altered pictures, glasses, and contact lenses with partial occlusions have been used in the past. One of the most promising me...

In the future, automated vehicles (AVs) without a human driver will potentially have to manage communication with vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians, in everyday traffic interaction situations. The aim of this work is to investigate pedestrian reactions to external communication concepts in a controlled, but real-world crossing scenario. Th...

The introduction of SAE Level 3 and 4 will in the near future allow users to legally engage in a variety of non-driving related activities (NDRAs) during automated driving. However, automated driving functions will at first be available only on certain (predictable) segments of a drive, leading to fragmented journeys. To improve users’ control over...

The SAE International plays a major role in shaping research and development in the field of automated driving through its SAE J3016 automation taxonomy. Although the taxonomy contributed significantly to classification and development of automated driving, it has certain limitations. SAE J3016 implies an “all or nothing” approach for the human ope...

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in everyday products increases and thereby also the interest on human-AI interaction. Research on user-adaptive systems still lacks uniform terminology and common definitions. To fill this gap, a taxonomy of user-adaptive systems, the Levels of Adaptive Sensitive Responses (LASR), has been proposed in previou...

When do we follow requests and recommendations and which ones do we choose not to comply with? This publication combines definitions of compliance and reactance as behaviours and as affective processes in one model for application to human-robot interaction. The framework comprises three steps: human perception, comprehension, and selection of an a...

Lane changes represent central driving maneuvers on highways and are frequently linked to acceleration maneuvers. For automated driving, previous studies have addressed the issue of appropriate longitudinal accelerations for vehicle occupants. However, these investigations only considered pure longitudinal acceleration maneuvers and have neglected...

The ongoing transformation of mobility, including new services such as on-demand mobility, raises the question of how services need to be designed so that everyone can use them. The number of persons with mobility impairments is increasing as a result of demographic change, and with the current amendment of the law, it will be mandatory in Germany...

In automated driving it is important to ensure drivers’ awareness of the currently active level of automation and to support transitions between those levels. This is possible with $a$ suitable human-machine interface (HMI). In this driving simulator study, two visual HMI concepts (Concept $A$ and $B$ ) were compared with $a$ baseline for i...

The urban traffic system is most likely to change in the next years to a mixed traffic with human drivers, vulnerable road users, and automated vehicles. In the past, the development of external communication approaches for automated vehicles focused on scenarios where an automated vehicle communicates with either a pedestrian or a human driver. Ho...

Due to changes in mobility and the emergence of new services, it is becoming necessary to establish new vehicle classes between conventional buses and privately owned vehicles. New mobility scenarios need concrete specifications to develop the most user-centered shuttle buses. As a result, we are looking for the requirements and needs of operators...

Some studies provide evidence that humans could actively exploit the alleged technological advantages of autonomous vehicles (AVs). This implies that humans may tend to interact differently with AVs as compared to human driven vehicles (HVs) with the knowledge that AVs are programmed to be risk-averse. Hence, it is important to investigate how huma...

In a two-step study, an interview followed by an online questionnaire , we investigated the potential and user needs for systems that can support humans in the context of creative work. We found that participants usually follow a general creative process in problem identification, preparation, idea generation and idea evaluation, while frequently j...

A newly developed prototype of a soft cable-driven elbow exoskeleton for lifting and lowering of loads was developed. To identify potential harmful forces within the elbow joint, an analysis was conducted with biomechanical simulation. To analyze the effect of the exoskeleton on the human body, biomechanical simulations were conducted on the protot...

Biomechanical simulations can be used to evaluate the human stress during use of existing power tools. However, when the design is disruptively changed, it is challenging to predict the future nature of the user's use, posture, and load. Although simulation environments already exist for body posture prediction, they are not suitable for unbounded...

Automated vehicles offer various benefits for private transport. Besides an increase in road safety and driving comfort, higher levels of automated driving provide the opportunity to perform non-driving related tasks and to save time. Fundamental requirements for the success of automated driving are an appropriate tactical decision-making of the au...

Different levels of automation require distinct tasks of the driver. During partially automated driving, the driver has to supervise the system and the environment, whereas the driver can engage in non-driving related tasks during highly automated driving. With more aspects of the driving task being automated, the driver’s role becomes more passive...

Conditionally automated driving (L3) implies repeated transitions of the driving responsibility between the human operator and the automated driving system. This research examines users’ attitudes towards speech outputs as potential features for human-machine interfaces for L3 automated driving. The Kano method is applied to identify scenarios wher...

In the UNICARagil project, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, four modular autonomous vehicle concepts are de-veloped. The paper deals with an autonomous taxi designed for ride sharing and non-driving tasks and activities. An online-based survey is conducted to evaluate integrated components and features of the seating...

Automated driving promises great possibilities in traffic safety advancement, frequently assuming that human error is the main cause of accidents, and promising a significant decrease in road accidents through automation. However, this assumption is too simplistic and does not consider potential side effects and adaptations in the socio-technical s...

Zusammenfassung Die mit der Ausbreitung der COVID-19 Pandemie in Deutschland einhergehende Anforderung betriebliche Arbeitsabläufe an die gesetzlichen Hygiene- und Kontaktreduktionsvorgaben anzupassen, hat zu kurzfristigen und teilweise radikalen Veränderungen in der Arbeitswelt geführt. Im Rahmen des Forschungsvorhabens COVID19LL wurde basierend a...

Causal models allow us to reconstruct traffic accidents, predict the likelihood of future accidents and implement counter measures to prevent them. For drivers with impairments like visual field loss, naturalistic data on crash causes is however scarce due to their current prohibition to drive. This paper presents an approach to deriving a causal m...

Malfunctions are a major challenge in partially automated driving. During such malfunctions, the driver must be able to adequately take over vehicle guidance without being requested to intervene. This may be particularly difficult in urban areas due to their high complexity and information density. Augmented Reality Head-Up Displays (ARHUDs) may ha...

Any new development of a vehicle is only justified if it is characterised by innovations of what has been available so far. Since innovations generally require high technical and financial expenditure for their realisation, it is necessary to ensure by means of tests whether the expected effect (safety, usability, attractiveness, etc.) is actually...