John McPartland

• DO, MS
• Professor (Assistant) at University of Vermont

This paper presents a scoping review of recent literature regarding the phylogenetics of Cannabis, descending the taxonomic ranks of family, genus, species, subspecies, and varieties. The family Cannabaceæ now consists of ten genera. Cannabis is a monotypic genus consisting of one species, Cannabis sativa L. The monotypic model is supported by DNA...

Two kinds of drug-type Cannabis gained layman’s terms in the 1980s. “Sativa” had origins in South Asia (India), with early historical dissemination to Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Americas. “Indica” had origins in Central Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkestan). We have assigned unambiguous taxonomic names to these varieties, after examining mor...

Biogeographers assign the Cannabis centre of origin to “Central Asia”, mostly based on wild-type plant distribution data. We sought greater precision by adding new data: 155 fossil pollen studies (FPSs) in Asia. Many FPSs assign pollen of either Cannabis or Humulus (C–H) to collective names (e.g. Cannabis/Humulus or Cannabaceae). To dissect these a...

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is now being grown within the United States over a much broader geographic area and for different uses than during its last period of significant production that ended after World War II. Within the past 3 yr, a large number of arthropod species have been documented to feed on hemp in the United States. Among key pest spec...

Purpose: Previous studies have found non-CB1 non-CB2 G-protein-coupled receptors in rodents that are activated by the aminoalkylindole cannabinoid agonist WIN55212-2. This work obtained evidence for the presence or absence of similar receptors in the brains of other mammals, birds and amphibians. Materials and methods: Antagonism of the stimulation...

The mechanism by which Cannabis sativa dispersed from its center of origin remains an open question. The literature provides many hypotheses, which we review for the first time, but experiments are few. Darwin was interested in zoochory – the transport of plants by animals. He demonstrated endozoochory (transport of seeds via animal digestive syste...

New concepts are reviewed in Cannabis systematics, including phylogenetics and nomenclature. The family Cannabaceae now includes Cannabis, Humulus, and eight genera formerly in the Celtidaceae. Grouping Cannabis, Humulus, and Celtis actually goes back 250 years. Print fossil of the extinct genus Dorofeevia (=Humularia) reveals that Cannabis lost a...

Archaeological evidence of Cannabis sativa is comprised of textiles, cordage, fibre and seeds, or pottery impressions of those materials, as well as pseudoliths and phytoliths (pollen is not addressed here). Previous summaries of this evidence connect hemp with Bronze and Iron Age cultures in Europe. This study improves upon earlier summaries by: (...

Conventional wisdom states Cannabis sativa originated in Asia and its dispersal to Europe depended upon human transport. Various Neolithic or Bronze age groups have been named as pioneer cultivators. These theses were tested by examining fossil pollen studies (FPSs), obtained from the European Pollen Database. Many FPSs report Cannabis or Humulus (...

Debates over Cannabis sativa L. and C. indica Lam. center on their taxonomic circumscription and rank. This perennial puzzle has been compounded by the viral spread of a vernacular nomenclature, “Sativa” and “Indica,” which does not correlate with C. sativa and C. indica. Ambiguities also envelop the epithets of wild-type Cannabis: the spontanea ve...

This chapter has two parts. The first part details five characters that contribute to phenotypic diversity in Cannabis. Cannabinoids can be assayed by quantity (dry weight percentage of cannabinoids in harvested material) or by quality (the THC/CBD ratio, or chemotype). Cannabinoid quality is largely genetic, possibly monogenic. We dissect the mono...

Microbiological contaminants pose a potential threat to cannabis consumers. Bacteria and fungi may cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromized individuals. Even dead organisms may trigger allergies and asthma. Toxins from microbial overloads, such as Shigla toxin and aflatoxins, may pose a problem—unlikely, but possible. The Cannabis plant...

The formal botanical taxonomy of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus and C. indica Lamarck has become entangled and subsumed by a new vernacular taxonomy of “Sativa” and “Indica.” The original protologues (descriptions, synonymies, and herbarium specimens) by Linnaeus and Lamarck are reviewed. The roots of the vernacular taxonomy are traced back to Vavilov an...

Introduction: Cannabis biosynthesizes Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA-A), which decarboxylates into Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). There is growing interest in the therapeutic use of THCA-A, but its clinical application may be hampered by instability. THCA-A lacks cannabimimetic effects; we hypothesize that it has little binding affinity at ca...

Based on evidence that the therapeutic properties of Cannabis preparations are not solely dependent on the presence of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), pharmacological studies have been recently carried out with other plant cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids), particularly cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV). Results from some of thes...

The "classic" endocannabinoid (eCB) system includes the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, the eCB ligands anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and their metabolic enzymes. An emerging literature documents the "eCB deficiency syndrome" as an etiology in migraine, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, psychological disorders, and ot...

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) consists of at least two receptors (CB1 and CB2), several endogenous ligands, and over a dozen ligand-metabolizing enzymes. It has deep phylogenetic roots and regulates many aspects of embryological development and homeostasis, including the focus of this review: hunger, feeding, and metabolism. The ECS controls ene...

Previous research has shown that academic physicians conflicted by funding from the pharmaceutical industry have corrupted evidence based medicine and helped enlarge the market for drugs. Physicians made pharmaceutical-friendly statements, engaged in disease mongering, and signed biased review articles ghost-authored by corporate employees. This pa...

The present review provides an update on endocannabinoid basic science and clinical studies and proposes a new model to describe reciprocal interactions between somatic dysfunction and the endocannabinoid system. The endocannabinoid system consists of cannabinoid receptors, endogenous ligands, and ligand-metabolizing enzymes. The system exemplifies...

The purpose of this article was to track down the earliest known illustrations of Cannabis. Our in silico search methodology utilized computerized search engines and electronic databases for citation tracking. Many botanists prior to Linnaeus, beginning with Dioscorides, described more than one presumptive type of Cannabis. In some cases they were...

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) consists of two receptors (CB(1) and CB(2)), several endogenous ligands (primarily anandamide and 2-AG), and over a dozen ligand-metabolizing enzymes. The ECS has deep phylogenetic roots and regulates many aspects of embryological development and homeostasis, including neuroprotection and neural plasticity, immunity...

This report is based upon a clinical case series describing five patients who volitionally adultered cannabis with a variety of compounds that shared a common trait-cholinergic modulation. They included a nicotinic agonist, muscarinic antagonist and antiacetylcholinesterase compounds. Some of these compounds (e.g. tobacco) are known to exert pharma...

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system, like the better-known endorphin system, consists of cell membrane receptors, endogenous ligands and ligand-metabolizing enzymes. Two cannabinoid receptors are known: CB(1) is principally located in the nervous system, whereas CB(2) is primarily associated with the immune system. Two eCB ligands, anandamide (AEA) an...

This note continues the “Cannabis Clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring color illustrations of signs and symptoms. The fungus Trichothecium roseum produces a white fuzz that covers branches, leaves, and flowering tops of hemp. These symptoms have been confused with true powdery mildew, caused by Sphaerotheca macularis. We...

Cannabinoids in current use such as nabilone activate both CB1 and CB2 receptors. Selective CB2 activation may provide some of the therapeutic effects of cannabinoids, such as their immuno-modulatory properties, without the psychoactive effects of CB1 activation. Therefore, cannabinoid CB2 receptors represent an attractive target for drug developme...

A meta-analysis, unlike a literature review, synthesizes previous studies into new results. Pooled data from 211 studies measured ligand binding affinities at human (Hs) or rat (Rn) cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. Cochrane methods were modified for this non-clinical analysis. Meta-regression detected data heterogeneity arising from methodologica...

This note continues the “Cannabis Clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring colour illustrations of signs and symptoms. The hemp longhorn beetle (Thyestilla gebleri) damages hemp stalks in eastern Asia. The fungus Botryosphaeria marconii causes stalk and twig blight disease of hemp in North America and perhaps western Europe....

The best-known endocannabinoid ligands, anandamide and 2-AG, signal at least seven receptors and involve ten metabolic enzymes. Genes for the receptors and enzymes were examined for heterogeneities in tempo (relative rate of evolution, RRE) and mode (selection pressure, Ka/Ks) in six organisms with sequenced genomes. BLAST identified orthologs as r...

Genes for receptors and ligands must coevolve to maintain coordinated gene expression and binding affinities. Researchers have debated whether anandamide or 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) is a more "intrinsic" ligand of cannabinoid receptors. We addressed this debate with a coevolutionary analysis, by examining genes for CB1, CB2, and ten genes that...

The zebrafish has served as a model organism for developmental biology. Sequencing its genome has expanded zebrafish research into physiology and drug-development testing. Several cannabinoid pharmaceuticals are in development, but expression of endocannabinoid receptors and enzymes remains unknown in this species. We conducted a bioinformatics ana...

This note continues the “Cannabis Clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring colour illustrations of signs and symptoms. The fungus Jahniella bohemica damages hemp stalks in Europe. In the previous issue of “Cannabis Clinic” we illustrated Jahniella bohemica and showed how this fungus has been confused with Leptosphaeria acuta...

This investigation evaluated changes in pressure pain threshold (PPT) in 11 healthy females during three phases of the menstrual cycle: menstrual (day 3 following onset of menses), follicular (days 12–13), and luteal (day 21). PPTs were measured with an algometer at nine anatomical locations, bilaterally, for a total of 18 sites. The sites chosen s...

This note continues the “Cannabis Clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring colour illustrations of signs and symptoms. The fungus Jahniella bohemica damages hemp stalks in Europe. For 125 years this fungus has been confused with Leptosphaeria acuta, a fungus that infests nettle stalks. The morphology of J. bohemica is descri...

Theories regarding the molecular pathophysiology of myofascial trigger points (MFTrPs) have undergone fundamental revisions in recent years. New research suggests that MFTrPs are evoked by the abnormal depolarization of motor end plates. The motor endplate transduces electrical potential into muscle contraction. This review article expands the prop...

This note continues the “Cannabis Clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring color illustrations of signs and symptoms. White leaf spot is caused by a fungus, Phomopsis ganjae. Signs and symptoms of the disease, life history of the pathogen, differential diagnosis, and control measures are discussed. Disease symptoms and fungu...

Two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, are expressed in mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The presence of cannabinoid receptors in invertebrates has been controversial, due to conflicting evidence. We conducted a systematic review of the literature, using expanded search parameters. Evidence presented in the literature varied in validity, rangin...

Endocannabinoid system evolution was estimated by searching for functional orthologs in the genomes of twelve phylogenetically diverse organisms: Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Takifugu rubripes, Ciona intestinalis, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana, Plasmodium falciparum, Tetrahymena therm...

Plant taxonomy is primarily based on patterns of morphological variation and geographical distribution. Plant-parasite relationships can also offer clues regarding the phylogeny of the host plant. Many obligate parasites coevolve with their hosts, eventually becoming restricted to an individual taxon. Host restriction may take place at different ta...

Endogenous cannabinoids activate cannabinoid receptors in the brain and elicit mood-altering effects. Parallel effects (eg, anxiolysis, analgesia, sedation) may be elicited by osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT), and previous research has shown that the endorphin system is not responsible for OMT's mood-altering effects. The authors investigat...

A cannabinoid receptor orthologue (CiCBR) has been described in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis. Here we report that CiCBR mRNA expression is highest in cerebral ganglion, branchial pharynx, heart and testis of C. intestinalis, and that this organism also contains cannabinoid receptor ligands and some of the enzymes for ligand biosynthesis and in...

This article continues the “Cannabis clinic” series, presenting diseases and pests of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), featuring color illustrations of signs and symptoms. Hemp cultivation is new to New Zealand (NZ). Field trials began in 2001, evaluating cultivars from Europe or North America. Novel crop plants imported into new geographical areas are e...

This chapter concerns the philosophy underlying the Biodynamic model of osteopathy in the cranial field (BOCF). To do this we employ a Hegelian dialectic, a weave of BOCF principles with BOCF science, presented within an historical context. We will compare biomechanical OCF with Biodynamic OCF, or "left-brained versus right-brained cranial" as Fred...

Fusarium wilt is caused by two closely-related fungi, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cannabis. The disease was first described on hemp in Eastern Europe about 50 years ago, but is now found throughout the Northern hemisphere. Greenhouse studies demonstrated that all cultivars of Cannabis that were tested are sus...

The proposed etiology of Travell trigger points (TrPs) has undergone a fundamental revision in recent years. New research results suggest that TrPs are evoked by the abnormal depolarization of motor end plates. This article expands the proposed etiology to include presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic mechanisms of abnormal depolarization (ie, ex...

Hemp is new to Aotearoa, the indigenous name of New Zealand (NZ). The NZ government approved the experimental cultivation of hemp in 2001. Eleven cultivars have been cultivated to date, ‘Anka’, ‘Carmen’, ‘Fasamo’, ‘Felina’, ‘Finola’, ‘Futura 77’, ‘Kompolti’, ‘Uniko B’, ‘USO 14’, ‘USO 31’, and ‘Zola’. Crops have been planted at 19 sites the past two...

This is the second in a series of “Cannabis clinic” notes, presenting diseases and pests of hemp, featuring colour illustrations of signs and symptoms. This note concerns Striatura Ulcerosa, the name of a hemp disease caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. mori. The disease was first described in Italy over 100 years ago, but may have ori...

The endocannabinoid system consists of two cannabinoid (CB) receptors, seven ligands, and ligand-catabolizing enzymes such as fatty acid amid hydrolase (FAAH) and monoglyceride lipase (MGL). The system's phylogenetic distribution is poorly known. The ligands cannot be molecularly investigated because they are not polypeptides and their specific syn...

In most countries Cannabis is the most widely used illegal drug. Its use during pregnancy in developed nations is estimated to be approximately 10%. Recent evidence suggests that the endogenous cannabinoid system, now consisting of two receptors and multiple endocannabinoid ligands, may also play an important role in the maintenance and regulation...

Biological control organisms undergo host range studies to identify potential nontarget hosts. The selection criterion for host range studies is primarily based on the target host's taxonomy. Thus, inaccuracies in host taxonomy may compromise the validity of host range studies. We propose that biocontrol researchers use internet‐available databases...

Over the past decade, several putative homologs of cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) have been identified by homology screening. Homology screening utilizes sequence alignment search engines to recognize homologs. We investigated these putative CBR homologs further by 'functional mapping' of their deduced amino acid sequences. The entire pharmacophore o...

The hemp russet mite Aculops cannabicola (Farkas) is a little-known but potentially dreadful pest. It primarily feeds on leaves, petioles, and meristems. The mites quickly spread between plants grown in proximity. They cause a curling of leaf edges, followed by leaf russeting. The mites feed on the inflorescences of both sexes, and on glandular tri...

This review article concerns byssinosis, a respiratory disease that affects workers in textile mills. According to experts in the field of occupational medicine, hemp mill workers suffer worse than workers in flax, cotton, jute, and sisal mills. The causative factor in hemp dust has not been determined with certainty. However, this review assembles...

Janet Travell dedicated her medical career to the diagnosis and treatment of myofascial dysfunctions, culminating in the two-volume ‘red bible’ that she coauthored with David Simons, The Trigger Point Manual. She defined trigger points as tender nodules in taut bands of sketetal muscle that have the ability to refer pain, motor dysfunction, and aut...

Two cannabinoid (CB) receptors are known in humans, CB1 and CB2. They are phylogenetically ancient. Studies suggest CB re- ceptors occur in mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, sea urchins, mol- lusks, leeches, and Hydra vulgaris. The CB receptor genes from some of these animals have been cloned and sequenced. These sequences were used to construct a...

The hemp borer, Grapholita delineana, is newly described from feral hemp in Vermont, USA. It may pose a serious pest should hemp cultivation resume in the USA. A similar situation occurred in the 1960s, when G. delineanasuddenly became a serious pest in southeastern Europe. Evidence suggests the pest was imported from its native range via infested...

Few nematodes infest the roots of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) plants, and hemp plant extracts have been utilised as botanical nematicides. The responsible constituent may be δ‐tetrahydrocannabinol (δ‐THC). In humans, δ‐THC exerts its effects via a family of G protein‐coupled receptors, known as cannabinoid (CB) receptors. CB receptors are phylogeneti...

The endocannabinoid system exerts an important neuromodulatory role in mammals. Knockout mice lacking cannabinoid (CB) receptors exhibit significant morbidity. The endocannabinoid system also appears to be phylogenetically ancient--it occurs in mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, sea urchins, leeches, mussels, and even the most primitive animal with...

. A central tenet underlying the use of botanical remedies is that herbs contain many active ingredients. Primary active ingredients may be enhanced by secondary compounds, which act in beneficial syn-ergy. Other herbal constituents may mitigate the side effects of dominant active ingredients. We reviewed the literature concerning medical can-nabis...

Many constituents of cannabis exhibit beneficial anti-in- flammatory properties, such as 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in mar- ijuana and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in hemp seed oil. The effects of these cannabis constituents on eicosanoid metabolism is reviewed. THC and GLA modulate the arachidonic acid cascade, inhibiting the production of series...

European physicians treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) with saw palmetto extract (SPE), while American physicians generally disregard SPE because "research is lacking." The authors investigated this discrepancy with a literature search and a clinical trial. The literature search began with MEDLINE, then expanded to "alternative" databases, in...

This article provides an overview of various systems of bodywork including biomechanical and structural systems, movement therapies, and energy-field techniques. Similarities among these systems are described as including the ten principles of movement. Generalizations are also provided regarding the difference between separate systems of bodywork....

Herbalists claim that the polypharmacy of botanical remedies provides 2 advantages over single-ingredient drugs: (1) primary active ingredients in herbs are synergized by secondary compounds, and (2) secondary compounds mitigate the side effects caused by primary active ingredients. To examine this second claim, medical marijuana was compared with...

The authors surveyed 191 allopathic physicians (MDs), registered nurses (RNs), and allied health professionals (AHPs) regarding their opinions toward osteopathic medicine and alternative therapies. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to these healthcare professionals practicing in a rural region of west-central Vermont. Participants r...

Research on the rectus capitus posterior minor (RCPM) muscle shows that it is one of the most important muscles of the suboccipital region. In this article we review the anatomy, physiology, function and dysfunction as well as the evaluation and treatment of this muscle. There is anatomical evidence indicating that the RCPM directly affects the bio...

Tabaksgebruik en andere gedragsfactoren worden in verband gebracht met chronische rugpijn. Op anekdotische basis berustende veronderstellingen luiden dat overmatig cafeïnegebruik ook gepaard kan gaan met chronische rugpijn. We hebben de consumptie van cafeïne door patiënten met chronische rugpijn vergeleken met de cafeïneconsumptie door controlepro...

The number of bodyworkers and movement therapists in Vermont, USA was estimated by searching for advertisements (yellow pages, newspapers and magazines, business cards and brochures), surveying membership lists (e.g. Vermont Massage Guild) and reviewing state registrations (e.g. the roster of licensed chiropractors). This search was supplemented by...

We review three Colletotrichum species that reportedly infect ginseng (Panax species). C. dematium and C. coccodes are associated with P. quinquefolius in the United States. C. panacicola causes anthracnose of P. ginseng in Korea, China, eastern Russia, and Japan. C. dematium and C. coccodes are cosmopolitan fungi reported from many plant hosts. C....

Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es, die Reliabilität der Strain/Counterstrain-Methode (Diagnostik aufgrund provozierender Palpation myofaszialer Triggerpunkte) für die Diagnostik in der Manuellen Medizin zwischen verschiedenen Untersuchern zu bestimmen. Die diagnostische Übereinstimmung der Untersucher bei der Counterstrain-Methode wurde mit derje...

Micropeltopsis cannabis sp. nov. and Orbilia luteola (Roum.) comb. nov. are proposed. New Cannabis host associations include binucleate Rhizoctonia spp., Curvularia cymbopogonis, Sphaerotheca macularis, Glomus mosseae, and Pestalotiopsis sp. The geographic ranges of Pseudoperonspora cannabina, Septoria neocannabina and Fusarium graminearum are expa...

Those immunocompromised by AIDS or cancer chemotherapy use marijuana to allay symptoms of their disease or treatment. Some researchers believe that marijuana may further suppress the immune system. A list of immunological hazards that may be present in marijuana was collated and assessed, and clinical recommendations regarding the use of marijuana...

The majority of cases of mushroom poisoning occur in children and involve benign gastrointestinal irritants. Critical poisonings most frequently occur in adults who ingest Amanita phalloides or other mushrooms containing amanitin. Critical versus noncritical poisonings can be diagnosed with a high degree of confidence by the patient's history and i...

The number of alternative/holistic practitioners in Vermont was estimated by two methods: scanning advertisements (yellow pages, newspaper and magazine ads, brochures), and by word-of-mouth canvassing. We located 897 Vermonters who derive most of their annual income practicing at least 1 of 97 different types of alternative medicine and therapy. Mo...

Tobacco use and other behavioral factors are associated with chronic back pain. Anecdotes suggest excess caffeine use may also be associated with chronic back pain. We compared caffeine consumption by chronic back pain patients with caffeine consumption by controls. Retrospective case-control study. A multispecialty outpatient facility. Sixty new,...

To study the relationship between chronic neck pain, standing balance and suboccipital muscle atrophy. We hypothesize that patients with chronic neck pain have more somatic dysfunction in the cervical spine than control subjects without neck pain. We also hypothesize that patients with chronic neck pain and somatic dysfunction exhibit more atrophy...

Entrainment is the integration or harmonization of oscillators. All organisms pulsate with myriad electrical and mechanical rhythms. Many of these rhythms emanate from synchronized pulsating cells (eg, pacemaker cells, cortical neurons). The cranial rhythmic impulse is an oscillation recognized by many bodywork practitioners, but the functional ori...

Nine illustrative cases of iatrogenesis are presented. Complications include depression, confusion, headaches, diplopia, vertigo, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, trigeminal nerve damage, hypopituitarism, brainstem dysfunction, opisthotonus, assorted seizures and possible miscarriage of a 12-week pregnancy. Over half the cases involved pati...