João P S Correia

Swallowtail seaperch, Anthias anthias, is a popular fish in the public aquaria industry worldwide, but is subject to barotrauma and high mortality rates if an appropriate decompression profile is not used. Here, we analyze behavioral response to pressure reductions in swallowtail to define protocols for mitigating surfacing mortality. Four different pressure reduction rates were tested (15%, 25%, 35%, and 45%) in several lifting steps from an initial depth of 30 m. Decompression using this procedure was done with 12 and 24 h acclimation duration at each step allowing fish to recover from the pressure reduction. Fish condition was assessed based on swimming behavior, immediately after each new pressure reduction also after each acclimation time. Additionally, fish condition was monitored in a post-decompression trial for 14 days. During decompression, both conditions - initial and final - showed statistically significant differences in the reduction rates tested but showed no differences in acclimation times, and no interaction of the two factors. Neither pressure nor acclimation time affected the condition of the animal in post-decompression trials. Ascension steps near the surface are associated with larger decreases in neutrally buoyant fish compared to deeper decompression steps. Close monitoring of the effect of decompression on A. anthias in the control group, showed that a 29% reduction in pressure could indicate an approximate value of the free vertical range of this species, while swimbladder rupture can occur between 63 and 70% of pressure reduction. The optimal protocol for mitigating surfacing mortality combines two decompression profiles used in this experiment with a total duration of 84 h and comprising 4 lifting steps. The protocol developed to mitigate surfacing mortality was designed for conditions where oceanic cages or containers can be lifted gradually.

Swallowtail seaperch, Anthias anthias, is a popular fish in the public aquaria industry worldwide, but is subject to barotrauma and high mortality rates if an appropriate decompression profile is not used. Here, we analyze behavioral response to pressure reductions in swallowtail to define protocols for mitigating surfacing mortality. Four different pressure reduction rates were tested (15%, 25%, 35%, and 45%) in several lifting steps from an initial depth of 30 m. Decompression using this procedure was done with 12 and 24 h acclimation duration at each step allowing fish to recover from the pressure reduction. Fish condition was assessed based on swimming behavior, immediately after each new pressure reduction also after each acclimation time. Additionally, fish condition was monitored in a post-decompression trial for 14 days. During decompression, both conditions - initial and final - showed statistically significant differences in the reduction rates tested but showed no differences in acclimation times, and no interaction of the two factors. Neither pressure nor acclimation time affected the condition of the animal in post-decompression trials. Ascension steps near the surface are associated with larger decreases in neutrally buoyant fish compared to deeper decompression steps. Close monitoring of the effect of decompression on A. anthias in the control group, showed that a 29% reduction in pressure could indicate an approximate value of the free vertical range of this species, while swimbladder rupture can occur between 63 and 70% of pressure reduction. The optimal protocol for mitigating surfacing mortality combines two decompression profiles used in this experiment with a total duration of 84 h and comprising 4 lifting steps. The protocol developed to mitigate surfacing mortality was designed for conditions where oceanic cages or containers can be lifted gradually.

This is a report on the capture, transport, and husbandry of pilotfish, Naucrates ductor. The objective of this work was to evaluate the most adequate process for capturing, transporting and maintaining pilotfish, while gaining understanding on their behavior. Collection was done in the Azores, by hook and line. Seventy six individuals were then transported to shore, where they were maintained for two months. After this, they were transported by sea over four days. This transport was then followed by an eight day transport by road along Portugal, Spain and multiple public aquaria in France. The animals endured this trip with no losses and multiple notes on husbandry and behavior are provided. Subsequently (2014 to 16), other animals were shipped by air to Atlanta (Georgia, USA), Plymouth (UK), Budapest (Hungary), Springfield (Missouri, USA), and Dubai (UAE), which involved multiple trials prior to the first shipment, to ensure survivorship and wellbeing during the long transit times. The trials revealed that shipping must occur in the presence of an ammonia quencher and pH buffering agents, including the addition of povidone-iodine to decrease bacterial growth, and ice, to keep temperature low.

The aquarium industry as we know it today is greatly influenced by the possibility of transporting aquatic species worldwide. For most of the common marine species in this industry, their natural habitat is often located half a world away from their final destination. The transportation process, however, used to be a synonym for high mortality rates. High standards for collection and premium post-harvest husbandry practices are of paramount importance to achieve success in marine species transportation. Still, and despite the adoption of modern high standard practices, this may not be sufficient to ensure low mortality rates. Transport itself can be highly stressful and physiologically challenging to the organisms and may lead to mortalities. In order to reduce these mortality numbers, numerous techniques have been tested and applied globally and, in some cases, with great success. Some of these techniques are here described in detail.

Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) plays an important role in Portuguese fisheries. Portuguese commercial swordfish landings were analyzed from 1986 to 2012. Commercial landings of five incidental catches of pelagic sharks—bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus), thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus), shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), blue shark (Prionace glauca), and smooth hammerhead shark (Sphyrna zygaena)—were also evaluated for the same period. A total of 653 landings of swordfish (12,625 t) were observed in 62 ports. Annual landings for the fishery generally decreased over time, with a corresponding increase in price per kilogram. The most fished shark was blue shark, with 12,715 t in 48 ports. It was followed by shortfin mako, thresher, smooth hammerhead, and bigeye thresher (with 5113 t, 672 t, 19 t, and 0.45 t, respectively). Lowest landings of swordfish were observed in the first semester of each year, while catch levels of blue sharks were high during the same period. Shortfin mako catches did not raise until 2005. The remaining species studied always displayed lower landings, suggesting that most of them are bycaught.

Animal welfare during handling and transportation to aquaculture facilities or public aquaria is commonly estimated by addressing injury and mortality levels. Although these procedures have been optimized for different species, data on individual species’ cellular capabilities to tolerate stress are still scarce. In the present study, several biomarkers related with oxidative stress and energy metabolism were assessed in Holothuria forskali during animal acclimation, pre-transport, transport and quarantine. Combined analyses confirmed that sea cucumbers experienced high oxidative stress during transport, but had the capability to deal with it using a complex of cellular defence mechanisms, which enabled recovery from oxidative stress without permanent damage. Through a better understanding of individual species and the development of optimal parameters, this approach has the potential to improve animal wellbeing during and after acclimation, transportation and recovery processes.

Marine ecosystems are constantly being threatened by contaminants produced by human activities. There is an urge to better understand their impacts on marine organisms and develop reliable tools for biomonitoring studies, while also assessing their potential impacts on human health. Given their position on top of food webs, sharks are particularly susceptible to bioaccumulation, making them potential sentinel species of marine contamination. The main objective of this study was to find suitable biomarkers for future marine pollution biomonitoring studies by correlating biochemical responses with tissue contaminant body burden in blue sharks (Prionace glauca), a species heavily caught and consumed by humans, while also addressing their general health. The chemical contaminants analysed comprised different persistent organic pollutants (POPs) families from polychlorinated compounds to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) and different trace and heavy metals. Concentrations of some contaminants in sharks' tissues were found to be above the legally allowed limits for human consumption. A canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was performed and some strong associations were found between biochemical responses and contaminants' accumulation levels. DNA damage and lipid peroxidation levels, as well as the inhibition of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase, were the main effects and consequences of contamination. The impact of contamination on these vital macromolecules underlines the suboptimal conditions of the sampled P. glauca, which can ultimately lead to the degradation of core ecological aspects, such as swimming, feeding, and reproduction. It can be concluded that P. glauca demonstrates great potential to be used as environmental sentinel and suitable biomarker candidates were identified in this work. Moreover, this study also highlights the risks that the consumption of blue shark derived products can pose to human health, which is of upmost interest as the sampled organisms were still juveniles and already presented values above regulatory limits.

This presentation focuses on the technical details adopted to collect Naucrates ductor using hook & line off the central Azorean archipelago, Sphyraena barracuda using barrier nets in Horta island, Silurus glanis with barrier nets in the Ebro river and Epinephelus marginatus using traps in Horta Island. Details are additionally provided on husbandry techniques adopted for each species, with emphasis on prophilactic and post-traumatic treatments that have proved very successful over the years, such as the use of Betadine baths. Results on both simulated transports and de-facto transports are also presented, including essays conducted with the use of pH buffering and ammonia quenching agents, thus ensuring water quality remained optimal throughout transport. These essays, and subsequent transports, revealed that a formula of 25 / 100 / 100 grams of Amquel / sodium bicarbonate / sodium carbonate (respectively) yield ideal results. Additional techniques adopted for the very particular transport of a large 2,6 meter long teleost (Silurus glanis) by both road and air are also given, such as how to balance the need for degassing, while keeping a fully sealed environment, through the use of one-way valves. Further notes on the occurrence of species specific parasites on Epinephelus marginatus are also given.

This paper reports on simulated long-term transports of small ornamental fish inside sealed containers. The species involved were Diplodus sargus, Gobius paganellus, Gobiusculus flavescens, Lepadogaster lepadogaster, and Lipophrys pholis. The objective of such simulations was to determine the maximum bioload that it is possible to move inside a sealed container, while ensuring 100% survivorship, ultimately resulting in financial savings for the end-receiver. Transports were simulated over 24, 48 and 72 hours, with increasing animal bioloads per bag. Fifty percent of the trials were performed with “regular” saltwater while the other half involved seawater buffered with Amquel®, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, with the objective of keeping ammonia low and pH similar to initial baseline values. At the end of each trial, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and ammonia were analysed and survival rates determined. L. lepadogaster endured the highest bioloads and displayed 100% survivorship (i.e. up to 30 g/L), which is not surprising given the intertidal nature of this species. D. sargus exhibited mortalities with bioloads as low as 3.23 g/L, which echoes its predominantly pelagic nature and relatively lesser ability to endure confinement. The three remaining species showed varying degrees of tolerance to increasing bioloads in transport: L. pholis, also an intertidal species, tolerated up to 20 g/L over 72 hours, while G. paganellus tolerated up to 7 g/L over 72 hours, and G. flavescens (a predominantly pelagic species) could tolerate no more than 6 g/L up to 72 hours.

In recent years the zoo and aquarium industry experienced a major shift in their mission, which was reciprocated by the public’s perception towards these organizations. Many public aquaria throughout the world desire to engage the public in protecting marine shorelines and therefore exhibit intertidal pools to demonstrate the incredible mechanisms these organisms have developed to adapt to such a harsh and constantly changing environment. Lepadogaster lepadogaster, Lipophry pholis, and Gobius paganellus are cryptic species regularly found amidst intertidal areas (Rodrigues et al. 2008). Diplodus sargus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Gobiusculus flavescens (Fabricius, 1779) are benthopelagic fish abundant along rocky bottoms near shore, with juveniles often found in intertidal pools (D’Anna et al. 2012). Small ornamental fish have been shipped throughout the world for many years inside plastic bags, typically half-filled with water and half-filled with pure oxygen. This proportion may change slightly according to the nature, and size, of the animals transported but this technique has proved extremely effective for trips up to 48 hours. The small plastic bags are then sealed, double-bagged, and placed inside a styrofoam container, which is acknowledged by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) as adequate means for transporting fish and labeled accordingly as “Live Animal Regulations container type 51”.

1. Introduction Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a vital enzyme for the normal functioning of the neuromuscular system, where it is responsible for the hydrolysis of acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid, thus preventing continuous nervous impulses (Murphy, 1986; Walker and Thompson, 1991). The measurement of AChE and the activity of other cholinesterases is a widely applied method in pollution monitoring mainly due to their high sensitivity to anticholinergic chemicals, such as organophosphorus pesticides and carbamates (Payne et al, 1996; Fulton and Key, 2001; Chambers et al., 2002; Arufe et al., 2007). Additionally, ChEs are among the less variable biomarkers, which reinforces their use in pollution monitoring (Solé et al., 2008). Due to the lack of information on the forms of ChEs present in many organisms, studies that report screening for AChE may, in reality, be dealing with other ChE types (Magnotti et al., 1994; Oliveira et al., 2007; Silver, 1974). Currently, there are three known types of ChEs in fish: AChE, butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and propionylcholinesterase (PChE) (Sturm et al., 1999, Sturm et al., 2000; Kirby et al., 2000; Solé et al., 2008). Being top predators, sharks help maintaining populations of other fish balanced in the marine ecosystem. Their predatory nature makes them particularly vulnerable to environmental contamination via bioaccumulation and biomagnification and, due to this, sharks tend to have higher levels of metals and other compounds in their bodies than most fish species (Porcella, 1994; Hueter et al., 1995). Blue sharks (Prionace glauca) are one of the most abundant and heavily caught fishes in the world, with an estimated 20 million individuals caught annually as target or by-catch, making them a very suitable organism for ecotoxicology studies (Bonfil, 1994; Stevens, 2009). To our knowledge, the only available study where ChEs of shark species have been characterized is the one from Solé and colleagues (2008) where muscle tissue of Scyliorhinus canicula and Galeus melastomus was used. The main goal of this research was to characterize the cholinesterases present in the brain and muscle of P. glauca, and to validate its use as a biomarker of effect with an in vitro exposure to an organophosphate insecticide, in order to optimize tissue selection and assay protocols for future biomonitoring studies in marine ecosystems. 2. Materials and methods Muscle and brain samples from eight juvenile blue sharks (P. glauca) were collected aboard a commercial sword fishing boat, as soon as the animals were captured, and all samples were immediately kept on ice until they were stored in the lab at −80 °C. The eight organisms used in this study consisted in four males and four females ranging from 105 to 157 cm and from 113 to 167 cm, respectively. Samples were homogenized and cholinesterase characterization was performed in each tissue using substrates with higher affinity for specific enzymes: acetylthiocoline iodide (ATCh) for AChE, butyrylthiocholine iodide (BTCh) for BChE, and propionylthiocholine iodide (PTCh) for PChE. Substrate concentrations varied from 0.01 to 20.48mM. To calculate the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme with each substrate, experimental curves were fitted (monotonic increase part of the curve) using the Michaelis-Menten equation, in order to determine the ChE kinetic parameters: maximal velocity (Vmax) and Michaelis-Menten constant (Km). Eserine sulfate, BW-284C51 and iso-OMPA were used as selective inhibitors for total ChEs, AChE and BChE, respectively. An additional in vitro test was performed using the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos-oxon, whose mode of action is to inhibit AChE, as a model compound to assess the potential of this biomarker for effect assessment in the blue shark. 3. Results and discussion The results of ChE substrate preference in the brain are shown in figure 1. The substrate with higher hydrolysis rate was ATCh, followed by BTCh and PTCh. The enzymatic catalytic efficiency shown by the parameters of the Michaelis–Menten equation also shows the preference for the substrate ATCh. An inhibition of hydrolysis by excess of all three substrates was also verified. Eserine sulfate, a generic inhibitor of ChE, inhibited enzyme activity over 90% at concentrations higher than 50µM, showing that the enzymatic activity measured is mainly due to ChEs and not to other nonspecific esterases. Regarding the specific inhibitors for AChE and BChE, BW-284C51 caused over 90% inhibition but only at the highest concentration tested (800µM) while Iso-OMPA has also caused a dose-response inhibition with a maximum of 40% decrease in enzyme activity. With these results it is possible to conclude that the brain of P. glauca seems to contain atypical ChEs, displaying mixed properties of AChE and BChE. However, as the substrate with higher hydrolysis rates was ATCh this is the most suitable substrate to be used in future studies, with an optimal concentration 0.64 mM. In muscle tissue, the enzyme clearly preferred the substrate ATCh presenting much higher hydrolysis rates and catalytic efficiency than with the other substrates (Fig. 2). As it was observed for the brain tissue, also in muscle incubation with eserine caused an almost complete inhibition of enzymatic activity at concentrations higher than 50µM and therefore no other esterases are being assessed. The ChE present in the muscle showed to be highly sensitive to BW-284C51 and little affected by iso-OMPA, making it possible to conclude that the muscle of P. glauca seems to contain mainly AChE, and that the most suitable substrate to be used in future studies is ATCh, at an optimal concentration 0.64 mM. Regarding the in vitro exposure to chlorpyrifos-oxon, we have observed a dose-response pattern showing higher ChE inhibitions with increasing pesticide concentrations and with more than 90% inhibition in the highest concentrations, which reveals the potential of this biomarker for biomonitoring studies and contaminant effect assessment in the blue shark.

This is a report on the capture, transport, and husbandry of Naucrates ductor, also known as pilot fish. Approximately 100 individuals were collected by Flying Sharks in the sequence of an order from multiple public aquaria. Because there is vely limited knowledge about the capture, husbandry and transport of this species, it became necessary to investigate how to achieve this while causing minimum mortality and ensuring animal welfare. Collection was done in the Azores Islands, approximately 20 nautical miles from Horta, using a standard fishing rod and hook, after attracting blue sharks with bait. The animals were transported to shore inside plastic vats and introduced to large 2,0 m wide holding tanks at the Porto Pim Aquarium, where they were held for 2 months. Multiple treatments for wounds, and parasite control, were used and are reported. Transport to mainland Portugal was done aboard a commercial vessel, inside 2,4 m wide polyethylene vats with mechanical and chemical filtration consisting of cartridge filters and protein skimmers, respectively. Once docked on shore the 40 ft. container was then moved to a truck, where it traveled to Spain and France over 6 days. The total transport time of those animals delivered last was therefore 11 days and no mortalities were sustained in transit. The remaining animals were kept in Peniche for 2 more months inside 2,4 m wide polyethylene vats, with filtration consisting of cartridge and protein skimmers, as well as daily water changes. Multiple challenges faced during the collection, holding and transport processes are presented in this presentation.

Swordfish has an important role in Portuguese fisheries. Portuguese commercial swordfish landings were analyzed from 1986 to 2012. Commercial landings of five incidental catches of pelagic sharks (Alopias superciliosus, Alopias vulpinus, Isurus oxyrinchus, Prionace glauca and Sphryna zygaena) were also evaluated for the same period. A total of 3.653 landings of swordfish (12.625 t) were observed in 62 ports. Annual landings for the fishery generally decreased over time, with a corresponding increase in price per kilogram. The most fished shark was blue shark with 12.715 t in 48 ports. It was followed by shortfin mako, thresher, smooth hammerhead and bigeye thresher (with 5.113 t, 672 t, 19 t and 0,45 t, respectively). The lowest landings of swordfish were observed in the first semester of each years while catch levels of blue sharks were high. Shortfin mako catches raised only since 2005. The remaining species studies always displayed lower landings, suggesting that most of them are bycaught.

In 2010 Flying Sharks shipped 3.100 animals to the Istanbul Aquarium, filling two Airbus 300s to capacity. More than half of those animals were collected in Horta (Faial Island, Azores) and kept locally for months in three 40 ft. shipping containers. The enormous success of this transport got the Azorean team quite a bit of notoriety in Portuguese news and the Azorean Regional Government then proposed that Flying Sharks used an old whale processing plant as their facility. A deal was then made between Flying Sharks and the Regional Government, who would sponsor part of the installation of a collections and holding facility, the only condition being that the facility would have to be open to the public and also act as an education center. This presentation shows a summary time-lapse of the construction work involved to adapt an old turn-of-the-century factory to a modern facility with state of the art equipment to ensure animal well-being, as well as conveying an adequate educational message to visitors from all over the world. This was no easy task and it pushed the Azorean Flying Sharks to their very limit…

Bull rays (Pteromylaeus bovinus) and Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus and Coryphaena equiselis) were collected in Olhão (south of Portugal). These animals hosted multiple parasites, namely Caligus spp., and underwent a variety of treatments to remove them. Of all treatments tested, hydrogen peroxide showed the best results, although only concentrations above 100 ppm were effective in parasite removal. These high concentrations, however, proved to be highly toxic for the fish and led to the loss of some animals, especially those which had been handled before treatment. A total of 14 Bull rays were transported to Bolougne-Sur-Mer (France) by road and some animals were lost, which was attributed to excessive time in transit (>45 hr). In another transport, three Bull rays and 10 Dolphinfishes were moved to Stralsund (Germany) by road and air. The mechanical wounds suffered by one of the Bull rays during transport led to its death and, consequently, a deterioration of water quality in the tank containing two other conspecifics. This deterioration of water quality resulted in problems for the other two Bull rays, and one perished approximately 48 hr after arrival. The authors concluded that Dolphinfish can be transported with a low bioload for at least 27 hr, and Bull rays should not undergo transports longer than 35 hr. Special attention must be taken to injured animals, since this can lead to a decrease in water quality and consequently affect other animals in the same transport tank. Zoo Biol. 00:1-8, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Collection companies move a lot of money and animals while helping to drive hundreds of millions of visitors through zoological institutions around the World. Public aquaria play a decisive role in ocean conservation while educating visitors about the perils the oceanic environment faces. But these fine institutions rely on collectors to offer interesting and engaging specimens that drive crowds through their doors, for dull tanks attract less potential World-savers than striking exhibits hosting stunning animals with a powerful message. This rationale has been the backbone of Public aquaria Mission Statements in recent times. But can collectors do more than supplying live animals? The authors argue that, yes, collectors can – and should – use their tremendous resources in ocean conservation, and may do this in a number of ways. It is our belief collection companies can provide opportunities for ocean conservation, while working with public aquaria and academia.

A whale shark Rhincodon typus was found in a set-net in southern Portugal in October 2011. This was the first record for continental Europe and represents an increase of the species' known range. Upwelling events and increase in sea-surface temperatures are possible reasons for this occurrence.

During the second semester of 2009, three trips were made from Olhão (Southern Portugal) to Stralsund (Northern Germany) carrying 2.122 animals, which included multiple teleosts, elasmobranchs and invertebrates. This group included scombrids, such as 1.869 Scomber japonicus and 9 Sarda sarda, which are notoriously difficult to transport. However, multiple adaptations to transport regimes adopted regularly have allowed the authors to successfully move these animals by road and air over a total of up to 25 hr. Such adaptations included maintaining oxygen saturation rates at approximately 200%, and also the constant addition of AmQuel(®) , sodium bicarbonate, and sodium carbonate. Different formulations were used during the three trips, with the best results corresponding to 20/30/30 ppm of the three aforementioned chemicals, respectively. The authors suggest, however, that a modified formula of 20/40/40 ppm will allow for an even more stable pH on future trips.

This study reports on the first experimental research designed specifically for Manta birostris behavior. The authors attempted to learn about the feeding behavior and environmental cues influencing this behavior, as well as general cognitive ability. The preconditioned Manta's ability to identify food, on the basis of a fraction of the ordinary food signal complex, was tested. The opening of cephalic fins was considered a good indicator of feeding motivation level. The study subject animal used its biological clock to predict time and also associated a specific location with food, suggesting an ability to build up a cognitive map of its environment. Both underwater visual stimuli and olfactory stimuli had a very intense effect on food searching behavior over a 30 m distance, in contrast to visual signs from above the water surface. In addition, although an underwater visual signal resulted in a more intense response than from an olfactory signal, the specimen did not discriminate between different objects tested on the basis of visual sensation. It could therefore be suggested that food searching behavior of Mantas are governed by triggering stimuli, including smell or visual recognition, and modulated by the cognitive spatial map stored in their long-term memory. These findings will hopefully prove useful while devising protecting policies in the natural environment and/or while keeping these animals in captivity. Zoo Biol 27:294-304, 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Between September 2006 and April 2007 the authors transported one 0.9 m wingspan Mobula mobular from Olhão (South of Portugal) to Valencia (East of Spain), 12 approximately 1.0 m long Argyrosomus regius to Tarragona (Northeast of Spain) and four approximately 0.4 m long Mola mola to Atlanta (GA, USA). These journeys had a total "water to water" duration of 17, 22 and 33 hr, respectively. The first two transports were conducted by road whereas the third involved a combination of road and air travel. Water quality parameters-specifically dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH and ammonia-were monitored continuously throughout the duration of the trips and were maintained at optimum levels through the use of battery-powered filtration and chemical supplements. All animals arrived alive and well at their destinations. This paper reports on the specific transport regime adopted in each case and provides some insight for potential improvements in future similar transports.

SummaryA total of 262 shortfin mako sharks, Isurus oxyrinchus, was sampled from the swordfish longliners operating in the eastern North Atlantic. Most were juveniles, with only 3.4% mature. Based on cohort analysis, average growth was determined as 61.1 cm year−1 for the first year and 40.6 cm year−1 for the second year. There was a marked seasonality in growth, with average monthly rates of 5.0 cm month−1 in summer and 2.1 cm month−1 in winter. Cohort analysis also indicated summer as the probable parturition season, with sharks close to birth size caught in May 2003 and July 2004. Length at maturity for males was estimated at 180-cm fork length using the Schnute model. No females between 210 and 290-cm fork length were caught, although this appears to be the interval where maturation occurs. Gear selectivity was considered as the probable cause for the low number of mature females sampled.

The shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, is caught in the eastern North Atlantic as a regular bycatch of the surface-drift longline fishery, mainly directed towards swordfish, Xiphias gladius. Stomachs of 112 shortfin mako sharks, ranging in size from 64cm to 290cm fork length, showed teleosts to be the principal component of the diet, occurring in 87% of the stomachs and accounting for over 90% of the contents by weight. Crustaceans and cephalopods were also relatively important in this species’ diet, whereas other elasmobranchs were only present in lower percentages. Meal overlap was observed in half of the sampled sharks. No clear trend of prey size selectivity was found, despite smaller individuals seeming incapable of pursuing larger and faster prey. The retention of small prey was also observed in the diet of all sizes of shark. Seasonality in food habits was in accordance with the current availability of food items. The observed vacuity index of 12% is comparable to foraging ecology studies using gillnetting and appears not to be influenced by baited longline gear. Morphological relationships of the digestive system might add important information to the foraging ecology studies and to ecosystem modelling.

A shark tagging programme along the Portuguese coast was initiated in 2001 in collaboration with the National Marine Fisheries Service. From a total of 168 blue sharks (Prionace glauca) tagged, 34 sharks were recaptured (20% return rate) providing important information on this species' movement patterns for the area. A total of 28 sharks travelled less than 1000 km while at liberty for time periods ranging from 22 to 1294 days. The remaining fish travelled long distances to north-west Africa, central Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay. Only one shark made a transatlantic migration, being recaptured 3187 km from the tagging site. North–south movements seem to be related to seasonal sea-surface temperature variation in the north-east Atlantic. Seasonal segregation of different life stages also occurs.

Elasmobranchs are delicate animals and appropriate care should be observed during their transport or permanent damage and even death can result. Key considerations include risk of physical injury, elevated energy expenditure, impaired gas exchange, compromised systemic circulation, hypoglycemia, blood acidosis, hyperkalemia, accumulation of metabolic toxins, and declining water quality. Carefully planned logistics, appropriate staging facilities, minimal handling, suitable equipment, an appropriate transport regime, adequate oxygenation, comprehensive water treatment, and careful monitoring will all greatly increase the chances of a successful transport. In special cases the use of anesthesia and corrective therapy may be merited. The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives, pages 105-131. © 2004 Ohio Biological Survey Despite common perception to the contrary, sharks and rays are delicate animals. This delicate nature is nowhere more evident than during the difficult process of capturing and transporting these animals from their natural habitat to a place of study or display. If sufficient care is not used, it is not uncommon for elasmobranchs to perish during transport or shortly thereafter (Essapian, 1962; Clark, 1963; Gohar and Mazhar, 1964; Gruber, 1980). Any elasmobranch transport regime should take into account a number of considerations related to species biology and transport logistics. A list of 106 SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP Ampullae of Lorenzini Elasmobranchs detect weak electromagnetic fields using a specialized sensory organ called the Ampullae of Lorenzini, allowing them to detect electrical signatures produced by potential prey. They are sensitive to electrochemical cells induced by metals immersed in seawater and intolerant of dissolved heavy metallic ions (especially copper) (Gruber, 1980). Optimal swimming velocity An elasmobranch has achieved optimal swimming velocity when its energy expenditure per unit distance traveled, or total cost of transport (TCT), is minimized (Parsons, 1990; Carlson et al., 1999). If the elasmobranch swims slower or faster than this speed it will consume more energy. Carlson et al. (1999) observed that the optimal swimming velocity for blacknose sharks (Carcharhinus acronotus) was at speeds of 36-39 cm s -1 where TCT was 0.9-1.0 cal g -1 km -1 . If the sharks slowed down to 25 cm s -1 , then energy expenditure increased to 1.7 cal g -1 km -1 .

Portuguese commercial elasmobranch landings were analyzed for the period 1986-2001. An average of 5,169 (± 795 t) were landed yearly, representing 18 families, 29 genera, and 34 confirmed species. However, annual landings for the fishery generally decreased over time, with a corresponding increase in price per kilogram. The most important group, Raja spp., accounted for 33% of the landings or 26,916 t. They were followed by Centroscymnus coelolepis, Scyliorhinus spp., Centrophorus granulosus, and Centrophorus squamosus (accounting for 12%, 12%, 11%, and 9% of the landings, respectively). In the absence of CPUE data, the comparative trends of landings and price were employed as an indicator of the "status" of specific elasmobranch species. Raja spp., Centrophorus granulosus, Mustelus spp., Torpedo spp., and Squatinidae displayed indications of possible overexploitation, and they merit the focus of future research.

The capture and transport of scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini Griffith and Smith, 1834) historically has represented a difficult, expensive, and uncertain undertaking for the public aquarium community. In this study, techniques were developed to improve the successful long-term transport of S. lewini by mitigating some of the deleterious effects associated with hyperactivity and impaired swimming patterns. The relationship between the transport vessel size and shark sizes, numbers, and swimming behavior was considered when formulating the transport regime. By balancing these factors and adopting a comprehensive water treatment method, it was possible to extend the duration of a successful transport by up to 60 hr. Implications for the future transport of S. lewini and other free-swimming sharks are discussed. Zoo Biol 21:243–251, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A review of past behavioral ultrasonic telemetry studies of sharks and rays is presented together with previously unpublished material on the behavior of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris, around the Bimini Islands, Bahamas. The review, focusing on movement behaviors of 20 shark and three ray species, reveals that elasmobranchs exhibit a variety of temporal and spatial patterns in terms of rates-of-movement and vertical as well as horizontal migrations. The lack of an apparent pattern in a few species is probably attributable to the scarcity of tracking data. Movements are probably governed by several factors, some still not studied, but data show that food, water temperature, bottom type, and magnetic gradient play major roles in a shark's decision of where and when to swim. A few species exhibit differences in behavior between groups of sharks within the same geographical area. This interesting finding warrants further research to evaluate the causes of these apparent differences and whether these groups constitute different subpopulations of the same species. The lack of telemetry data on batoids and some orders of sharks must be addressed before we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the behavior of elasmobranch fishes. Previously unpublished data from 47 smaller and 38 larger juvenile lemon sharks, collected over the decade 1988–1998, provide new results on movement patterns, habitat selection, activity rhythms, swimming speed, rate-of-movement, and homing behavior. From these results we conclude that the lemon shark is an active predator with a strong, apparently innate homing mechanism. This species shows ontogenetic differences in habitat selection and behavior, as well as differences in movements between groups of individuals within the same area. We suggest three hypotheses for future research on related topics that will help to understand the enigmatic behavior of sharks.

On December 10, 2000, five tiger rockfish, Sebastes nigrocinctus, and 10 ratfish, Hydrolagus colliei, were transported from Vancouver, Canada, to Lisbon, Portugal, for 51 and 44 hours, respectively. The transport vessels consisted of large circular tanks (1.0-m diameter × 0.6 m high) and filtration was added to the rockfish tank only. Filtration consisted of a combination of cartridge and activated carbon, powered by a 12-V bilge pump placed on the middle of the transport vessel. Water quality parameters (ammonia, temperature, and oxygen saturation) were tested during the transport, and an ammonia detoxifier was added to some of the transport vessels when ammonia concentration reached 0.25 mg/L. Sodium bicarbonate was also added for pH buffering. All animals survived the trip and the subsequent 4 weeks. The water quality monitoring and treatment regimen therefore seemed appropriate for this type of long-term transportation. Zoo Biol 20:435–441, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

For 6 months, two sandtiger sharks (Carcharias taurus) were held captive together in a small enclosure at the Lisbon Zoo. During that period, the gravel was monitored daily for teeth shed by the animals. At the end of their stay, the number of teeth divided by the number of days yielded a tooth loss rate of 1.06 teeth per day per shark. The plotting of mean monthly values for tooth loss rate against mean monthly temperatures showed that these two variables increased with time, suggesting that the animals' metabolism was influenced by the increase in water temperature. Zoo Biol 18:313–317, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A technique for enhancing growth bands on vertebrae was assayed using 477 centra from blackmouth catsharks, Galeus melastomus. Specimens were caught at depths between 200 and 800 meters off the southern Portuguese coast (Algarve) during an IPIMAR research cruise in August 1994. Total lengths ranged from 12 to 71 cm. Standard vertebral ageing techniques, such as silver nitrate impregnation, haematoxylin staining, grinding and shading failed to produce clearly contrasting bands. A method solely based on vertebra decalcification with nitric acid (5%) yielded the most satisfactory results. This technique provided clear band differentiation and was used by two independent readers. The analysis of differences in band counts between readers was based on: percent of disagreements, percent of disagreement by length group, index of average percent error and Wilcoxon's signed ranks test. The majority of differences corresponded to only one band of disagreement and disagreements have been found to increase with length, which stresses the need for a larger sampling effort on the larger and older individuals. The index of average percent error was estimated as 4.6% and no statistical differences were detected between readers' results.

Abstract: Public aquariums have contributed to knowledge on elasmobranchs in various fields including diet, age and growth, bioenergetics, physiology, pathology, behavior, captive care, and population dynamics. Benefits of conducting research in public aquariums include: clear water, large tanks, species variety, and knowledge of husbandry. Limitations include: artificial habitats, possible modification of environmental cues (e.g., photoperiods, etc.), and insufficient replicates for adequate hypothesis testing. Although research in aquariums is continuing to increase, it appears to be restricted to relatively few institutions. We actively encourage aquariums to participate in elasmobranch research. We recommend cooperation between aquarists and colleagues at academic organizations to maximize the value of their respective skills. The ultimate aim of each study should be to publish results in peerreviewed journals or books, ensuring rigorous research practices and knowledge dissemination. Research activities will be of immediate benefit to the aquariums involved and ultimately aid in the conservation of elasmobranchs.

Elasmobranchs are delicate animals and appropriate care should be observed during their transport or permanent damage and even death can result. Key considerations include risk of physical injury, elevated energy expenditure, impaired gas exchange, compromised systemic circulation, hypoglycemia, blood acidosis, hyperkalemia, accumulation of metabolic toxins, and declining water quality. Carefully planned logistics, appropriate staging facilities, minimal handling, suitable equipment, an appropriate transport regime, adequate oxygenation, comprehensive water treatment, and careful monitoring will all greatly increase the chances of a successful transport. In special cases the use of anesthesia and corrective therapy may be merited.