Jill S Levenson

• Ph.D., LCSW
• Professor at Barry University

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore clients' perceptions of sex-offending treatment. The sample included 291 people required to register as sex offenders in the U.S. who answered an open-ended question in an online survey asking them to describe their positive and negative experiences in mandated treatment. Using qualitative analys...

Background A growing body of research documents the high rates of trauma among individuals who have sexually offended. Yet the relationship between prior victimization and subsequent sexual offending remained unclear. Objective: By including the voices and perspectives of individuals convicted of sexual offenses, we sought to strengthen professiona...

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are common in the histories of individuals who have sexually offended. Many risk factors for sexual recidivism resemble symptoms of early trauma, and early trauma may present a responsivity barrier to engagement in offense-focused treatment. Using the ACE scale, the current study aimed to (i) examine relationship...

A growing body of literature indicates that individuals who commit sexual offences have significant histories of childhood trauma. Clinicians who provide sex-offending treatment (SOTX) are increasingly asked to integrate trauma-informed principles into their work with these clients. However, no research has been conducted exploring how SOTX clinici...

Would you feel prepared if a client in your clinical practice shared that he was sexually attracted to children? Mental health professionals come in contact with these individuals primarily through the child welfare or criminal justice systems. But it is now increasingly evident that a population exists of non-offending minor-attracted persons (MAP...

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are common in the life histories of people who have sexually abused. Early relational traumas can affect both dynamic risk and responsivity in treatment. It is important to consider the role of trauma in self-regulation and risk management, and in responding to the wellbeing needs of our clients. In this chapter...

Sexual abuse prevention efforts need to focus on understanding the potential risk factors and treatment needs of minor-attracted persons (MAPs). The aim of this exploratory study was to describe the adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) of male MAPs and compare these to rates of ACEs in the general male population (n = 7,970) and in groups of indivi...

Sexual abuse prevention efforts should ideally include counseling for people who have attractions to children before they offend. Due to a variety of factors, many therapists do not wish to work with this population. The aim of this pilot project was to create, implement, and evaluate a short training workshop to help prepare clinical therapists (n...

This article provides a rationale for trauma-informed care (TIC) in correctional services, and challenges readers to think about offending behavior through the lens of trauma. Based on interdisciplinary research and cross-theoretical literature, TIC can help in our quest to develop relevant and successful programs, practices, and policies, and the...

Minor-attracted persons (MAPs; N = 293; 154 completed all questions) responded to 10 open-ended questions that were designed to capture in their own words their experiences of seeking treatment. We conducted a qualitative analysis of their responses using grounded theory, which is designed to allow themes to emerge from their responses without prec...

Vicarious trauma and burnout are not uncommon among therapists working with individuals who have sexually abused, which highlights the importance of workplace support. The current study aimed to explore sexual offending treatment providers’ experiences of workplace support, including support from supervisors and managers, using a mixed-methods appr...

The primary aim of this exploratory research was to gain information from minor-attracted persons (MAPs) about their (a) formal and informal experiences with help-seeking for minor attraction, (b) perceived barriers to seeking help for concerns about minor attraction, and (c) treatment priorities as identified by consumers of these services. A nonr...

The authors investigated the relationship between offender height and pedophilic interest in a sample of 22,228 registered sex offenders (RSOs). Concerns have been raised by a former collaborator that some of the data used in the analyses might be unreliable. In this clarification research note, we respond by briefly summarizing our methodology, de...

Children of incarcerated parents have often experienced not only the trauma of family separation, but also other forms of adverse events. Social workers can improve service delivery to this population by incorporating SAMHSA’s components of trauma-informed care (TIC). Translating TIC concepts into practice is an important but challenging goal for s...

Purpose of review: The goal of this paper is to improve evidence-based sex offender management systems through an understanding of the research findings related to the stated goals and unintended consequences of such laws. Recent findings: Assessment tools using factors derived from research studies can improve the identification of higher-risk...

People convicted of sex crimes have high rates of child maltreatment and family dysfunction as youngsters. Early adversity can create distorted thinking and maladaptive coping patterns. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can interfere with attachment and bonding, healthy relationship skills, and empathy development. Using guidelines developed by...

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to use the authors’ reflections and a review of literature to assess the ways that universities have yet to fully include faculty members in their sexual assault prevention initiatives. Recommendations for how faculty can assist are included. Design/methodology/approach The paper provides a review of literature...

p>ocial workers often find themselves working with children or adolescents who have been victims of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including youths who have ended up in the juvenile justice system. Childhood trauma has been linked to negative health, mental health, and behavioral outcomes across the lifespan. The aim of this study was to exa...

Persons with potentially harmful sexual interests such as attraction to minors are unlikely to seek or receive treatment before a sexual offense has been committed. The current study explored barriers to help-seeking in a sample of 372 individuals in treatment for sexual offending. Results revealed that the shame and secrecy resulting from stigma a...

Social workers frequently encounter clients with a history of trauma. Trauma-informed care is a way of providing services by which social workers recognize the prevalence of early adversity in the lives of clients, view presenting problems as symptoms of maladaptive coping, and understand how early trauma shapes a client's fundamental beliefs about...

This exploratory mixed-methods study utilized data from 101 semistructured interviews and a nationwide survey (n = 765) to examine law enforcement perspectives on sex offender compliance with registration obligations. Specifically, law enforcement views were explored regarding the definitions and frequency of noncompliance, its underlying reasons o...

The current study examined the relationship between offender height and pedophilic interest (as measured by having a victim under 13 years old) in a sample of 22,228 registered sex offenders in the United States. Results revealed that offenders with victims age 12 and under were, on average, nearly one-quarter inch shorter than offenders of adults,...

Experiences of trauma and maltreatment are frequent predictors of poor physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Existing literature also suggests an impact of developmental adversity on criminality and aggressive behavior, though little research exists describing the effects of cumulative adversity in forensic mental health samples. In the...

This chapter presents an overview of sex offender residence restriction (SORR) policies and how they have expanded in recent years. The historical rationale for the development of these laws is presented and contrasted with the situational sexual violence prevention literature and stranger danger myth of sexual offenders. The effectiveness and coll...

Zoning laws that prevent sex offenders from living within close proximity to schools and other places where children congregate have proliferated over the past 10 years. In many communities, few dwellings are compliant with these laws, causing sex offenders to become homeless. First, a brief history of residence restriction laws will be provided an...

Since the 1990s, sex offender registration and notification (SORN) has assumed a prominent place on state and federal crime control agendas in the United States. Although researchers have examined many aspects of SORN policies and systems, relatively little is known about how SORN is used, perceived, and experienced by law enforcement professionals...

The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of various types of childhood adversity on later sexual deviance and sexually violent behavior. Data were collected from more than 700 convicted sexual offenders in outpatient and confinement-based treatment programs throughout the U.S. Using the 10-item Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Sc...

The current study focuses on creating a more refined understanding of the number and prevalence rates of sex offenders living in five states using adjusted aggregate counts and US census data. Registered sex offender (RSO) population data reported by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) were compared to data obtained direc...

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on adult substance abuse and violence in a sample of offenders (n = 180). Higher ACE scores were significantly correlated with substance abuse scores and violence scores. Substance abuse and violence were also significantly correlated with each other. The...

There are perhaps no crimes that instill fear and rage in society like sexual offenses. This chapter will first summarize the history of contemporary sex offender registries and community management policies over the past two decades. Then, the effectiveness and impact of these laws will be described, as well as the pros and cons of residential res...

The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences is disproportionately high in samples of females who have sexually offended compared to females in the general population. Childhood adversity is associated with myriad negative psychosocial outcomes in adulthood; however, the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and psychosocial o...

Sexual violence continues to be a significant public health problem affecting significant portions of the population. Unfortunately, an agreed upon theory of etiology remains elusive leading to challenges in developing effective prevention and treatment interventions. Recently, there is a growing body of literature examining the role of adverse chi...

This chapter will first describe what is currently known about the registered sex offender (RSO) population in the USA, as well as what we know about victimization patterns. Then, common public perceptions about sexual offenders will be compared with research findings. Sex offender registration and residential restriction laws will be examined to i...

Sex offender registries, though popular, bring with them enormous fiscal costs and unintended consequences for offenders and communities. Consistent with the Grand Challenges, social workers can play a role in advocating for sex offender management policies that are better informed by evidence and thus a better use of resources. Registry reform wou...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of sexual offender management policies on sex crime repeat arrest rates in Florida. Aggregate data for the period 1990 to 2010 were provided by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement. The repeat offense rate was defined as the proportion of arrests each year that were committed by individua...

Developmental psychopathology theories suggest that childhood adversity can contribute to antisocial conduct and delinquent activities. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) on arrest patterns in a sample of sexual offenders (N = 740). Higher ACE scores were associated with a variety of arrest...

This study was designed to compare the Adam Walsh Act (AWA) classification tiers with actuarial risk assessment instruments and existing state classification schemes in their respective abilities to identify sex offenders at high risk to re-offend. Data from 1,789 adult sex offenders released from prison in four states were collected (Minnesota, Ne...

The purpose of this study was to explore the prevalence of substance abuse indicators in a sample of male sexual offenders (N = 679) and to examine the influence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) on the likelihood of substance abuse outcomes. Half of these sex offenders reported a history of drug or alcohol abuse, and nearly one in five report...

This study explored the prevalence of early trauma in a sample of U.S. female sexual offenders (N = 47) using the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) scale. Compared with females in the general population, sex offenders had more than three times the odds of child sexual abuse, four times the odds of verbal abuse, and more than three times the odds...

The notion that sex offender treatment does not work fuels public outrage and demands for protective legislation. This paper will respond to a recent meta-analysis reporting major weaknesses in research designs that preclude drawing conclusions about the effectiveness of sex offender treatment. Methodological and ethical challenges exist in the inv...

This study explored the prevalence of childhood trauma in a sample of male sexual offenders (N = 679) using the Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) scale. Compared with males in the general population, sex offenders had more than 3 times the odds of child sexual abuse (CSA), nearly twice the odds of physical abuse, 13 times the odds of verbal abuse,...

The transience of registered sex offenders (RSOs) is a major impediment to reentry success, particularly because it has been linked to increased absconding and recidivism, and thus decreased community safety. Unfortunately, there is limited existing research on what factors most influence this transience. The purpose of this study was to identify a...

Although sex offender registration and notification policies have occupied an increasingly prominent place on state and federal crime control agendas, much policy discourse has occurred amid a dearth of reliable and relevant national data. This article presents the results of a study designed to broaden knowledge about the registered sex offender (...

As we move forward in the field of sex offender treatment, clinicians should consider incorporating principles of trauma-informed care (TIC) into evidence-based sex offender treatment models. Early adverse experiences are prevalent in the general population and more so in criminal and sex offender populations. Early trauma paves the way for maladap...

The purpose of this study was to better understand transient (homeless) sex offenders in the context of residence restriction laws. Using the entire population of registered sex offenders (RSOs) living in the community in Florida (n = 23,523), transients were compared with other sex offenders on relevant demographics, risk factors, county character...

The presumed dangers presented by sex offenders who have absconded from authorities have played a prominent role in public discourse surrounding state and federal sex offender management policy. The current study is the first to empirically investigate the characteristics of absconded sex offenders and explore how this group compares to other group...

The good lives model (GLM) has become an increasingly popular theoretical framework underpinning sex offender treatment programs, and preliminary research suggests that the GLM may enhance the efficacy of programs that adhere to the Risk, Need, and Responsivity (RNR) principles. However, this potential rests on the appropriate operationalization of...

The purpose of this study was to obtain feedback from civilly committed sex offenders (N = 113) about the components of treatment that they believed to be most important and helpful in preventing reoffense. Participants were also asked to rate their satisfaction with the treatment process and therapists. Victim empathy and accountability were rated...

The purpose of this study was to better understand transient (homeless) sex offenders in the context of residence restriction laws. Using the entire population of registered sex offenders (RSOs) living in the community in Florida (n = 23,523), transients were compared with other sex offenders on relevant demographics, risk factors, county character...

Reports an error in "Failure-to-Register Laws and Public Safety: An Examination of Risk Factors and Sex Offense Recidivism" by Jill S. Levenson, Jeffrey C. Sandler and Naomi J. Freeman (Law and Human Behavior, Advanced Online Publication, Apr 2, 2012, np). The article should have included a disclosure statement. The disclosure statement is provided...

The current study focuses on creating a more refined understanding of the number and prevalence rates of sex offenders living in five states using adjusted aggregate counts and US census data. Registered sex offender (RSO) population data reported by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) were compared to data obtained direc...

It is frequently reported by the media and public officials that 100,000 registered sex offenders (RSOs) in the United States are “missing.” This policy note first describes the origin of this figure, which was initially derived from a 2003 informal survey of state registries conducted by a grassroots advocacy organization. Then, we explore the def...

Many municipalities have recently extended residence restrictions for sex offenders beyond the provisions of state law, although the efficacy of these measures in reducing recidivism has not been empirically established. This study used arrest histories in Jacksonville, Florida, to assess the effects of a recently expanded municipal 2,500-foot resi...

The goals of this study were to describe the characteristics of a sample of sex offenders charged with failure to register (FTR) in New York State, compare the FTR and non-FTR groups on relevant risk factors, identify risk factors associated with failing to register, and investigate the relationship between registration noncompliance and both gener...

Residence restrictions, which prohibit sex offenders from living within close proximity to places where children congregate, have grown popular. Participants (n = 255) were asked to participate in a survey rating and comparing their perceptions of residence restrictions for drunk drivers and sex offenders. Residence restrictions were seen as more p...

This quasi-experimental study analyzed the recidivism outcomes of 1,125 sexual offenders in two groups. The first group comprised 644 registered sex offenders who were convicted of a sex crime and at some point failed to register after release from prison. The comparison group contained 481 registered sex offenders released from prison during a sim...

History of US community protection policiesSex offender policies in other countriesDo these laws work to prevent repeat offending?The effectiveness of sex offender registration and notificationUnintended consequences of SORN policies and residence restrictionsConclusion: implications for policy and practiceReferences

Little research has investigated the prevalence of mood disturbance among sex offenders despite the fact that psychological distress may bear some relationship to community reintegration, and ultimately, recidivism. All offenders on New Jersey’s sex offender Internet registry were mailed surveys about their experiences with, and perceptions of, not...

Some sex offender registration and notification (SORN) policies subject all registered sex offenders to Internet notification. The present study examined the effects of one such broad notification policy on sex crime recidivism. Secondary data were analyzed for a sample of 6,064 male offenders convicted of at least one sex crime between 1990 and 20...

The treatment of sexual offenders can be fraught with ethical dilemmas. Practitioners must balance the therapeutic needs of sex offender clients alongside the risks they might pose to others. These ethical challenges include balancing community safety with the rights of the offender, the privileged therapeutic relationship and the potential for coe...

This article addresses ethical questions and issues related to the treatment of sex offenders in denial, using the empirical research literature and the ethical codes of American Psychological Association (APA) and National Association of Social Workers (NASW) to guide the ethical decision-making process. The empirical literature does not provide a...

This study examined whether South Carolina’s sex offender registration and notification (SORN) policy was associated with changes in judicial decision making concerning adult sex crime cases. Outcomes pertained to reduced charges (e.g., sex to nonsex crimes) and final case dispositions. Statewide crime data from 1990 to 2004 corresponded with three...

In an ideal world, there would be a seamless relationship between interventions that focus on risk factors causally associated with sexual reoffending and the subsequent release of, and ongoing support for, offenders into the community. However, emotionally fueled and uninformed public responses to news of released sex offenders, and the legislatio...

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between failure to register (FTR) as a sex offender and subsequent recidivism (N = 2,970). No significant differences were found between the sexual recidivism rates of those who failed to register and compliant registrants (11% vs. 9%, respectively). There was no significant difference in...

Residential restrictions for sex offenders have become increasingly popular, despite the lack of empirical data suggesting that offenders’ proximity to schools or daycares contributes to recidivism. Using a matched sample of recidivists and nonrecidivists from Florida (n = 330) for the period from 2004 through 2006, the authors investigated whether...

This study examined whether South Carolina’s sex offender registration and notification (SORN) policy was associated with a general deterrent effect on adult sex crimes. Using adult arrest data from 1990 through 2005, trend analyses modeled the intervention effects of 1995 (the year South Carolina’s SORN policy was initially implemented) and 1999 (...

With the 2006 passage of the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act (AWA), the U.S. Congress set forth a range of minimum standards governing the operation of sex offender registration and notification (SORN) systems throughout the nation. Many of these standards are based on the AWA’s uniform system of registrant classification, which distingu...

This article will review the use of polygraphy in the assessment and treatment of sexual perpetrators. Such information can be utilized by social workers who are involved in the treatment and case management of child sexual abuse cases. First, the controversial literature regarding the validity and reliability of polygraph examination in general wi...

States, municipalities, and parole departments have adopted policies banning known sex offenders from Halloween activities, based on the worry that there is unusual risk on these days. The existence of this risk has not been empirically established. National Incident-Base Reporting System crime report data from 1997 through 2005 were used to examin...

The collateral consequences of sex offender registration and notification (SORN) have been well established, although little evidence has supported the efficacy of SORN. Based on the belief that family members provide some of the most consistent, important, and intense forms of support for criminal offenders in general and registered sex offenders...

The purpose of this study was to better understand the impact of sex offender registration and notification laws on the family members of registered sex offenders (RSO). An online survey was utilized to collect data from 584 family members across the U.S. Employment problems experienced by the RSO, and subsequent financial hardships, emerged as the...

A recent article by Richard Wollert (2007) purports to demonstrate that the diagnostic inter-rater reliability of sex offender civil commitment evaluations is not high enough to be worthy for courtroom testimony. That author relies on a series of analyses to support that argument. Unfortunately, those analyses were flawed in serious ways, raising d...

This study explores the potential impact of residence restrictions on housing availability for registered sex offenders in Camden County, New Jersey (N = 211). The proportion of registered sex offenders who live within typical exclusionary zones of 1,000 and 2,500 ft of schools, day care centers, churches, and parks is determined using the Geograph...

Convicted sex offenders attending an outpatient treatment program in Connecticut were surveyed about their experiences in therapy, their perceived importance of treatment content, their satisfaction with the help they receive, and their engagement in therapeutic services. There were strong correlations between perceived importance of content items...

This study examines the views of 261 sexual abuse professionals regarding sex crime policies. Few participants believe that community notification is very effective in reducing sex offenses, but about half believe that all sex offenders should be subject to public disclosure. About one quarter of respondents opine that sex offenders should not be a...

Sex offender policies have been enacted based on anomalous cases of child abduction and murder, leading to public misperceptions about sex offenders, recidivism, and stranger danger. Professionals working in the sexual abuse field were surveyed to determine to what extent their knowledge and perceptions are consistent with current empirical literat...

The purpose of the study was to elicit feedback from sex offenders about the components of treatment that they believed to be most helpful in preventing reoffense. A sample of civilly committed sex offenders from the Sand Ridge Civil Commitment Center in Wisconsin (n = 44) was surveyed about their perceptions of treatment, including content, proces...

Surveying the views of sex offender clients can help ensure that treatment is relevant and responsive to client needs. The purpose of this exploratory study is to elicit sex offender clients' perceptions of their experiences in treatment in order to better understand the components of treatment perceived to be helpful in preventing reoffense. Sampl...

The authors sought to examine the impact of notification and residence restriction statutes on sex offender reintegration. Although previous research has primarily sampled sex offenders receiving treatment, the authors examined the impact of these policies on a broad sample of registered sex offenders subject to notification via the Internet. Findi...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the unintended consequences of policies that restrict where sex offenders can live. In Broward County, FL, 109 sex offenders were surveyed regarding the psychosocial, economic, and practical impact of such laws on their daily lives. Results revealed that sex offenders subjected to residence restrictions...

Some child molesters abuse children of both genders. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between gender crossover and victim age. The authors hypothesized that offenders who molested children of both genders would be more likely to have very young victims and that offenders who molested very young children would be more likely...

This study examines the recidivism of sexual offenders in New Jersey at three different time intervals: three years, five years, and ten years after release from prison. The sample is comprised of sexual offenders released from the general prison population (untreated sample, n = 150) and the Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center (ADTC) (treated sa...

Sex crime prevention policies are influenced by public opinion about sexual violence, and by the belief that such policies are effective in reducing or preventing sexual recidivism. It has been suggested that the public perceptions and attitudes in this area are based in part on popular myths and misconceptions. The current study examines public pe...

Public notification laws have been enacted by legislatures to address the risk posed by sex offenders to the public. Little research has been done regarding either the public's or sex offenders' knowledge and attitudes about community notification and its impact. This study compared the experiences and perceptions of 125 sex offenders in outpatient...

Sex offenders and sex crimes provoke a great deal of anxiety in our society, and over the past decade, lawmakers have passed a variety of social policies designed to protect the public from sexual victimization. The purpose of this study was to examine public perceptions about sex offenders and community protection policies. Data were obtained from...

In sum, the empirical research on sex offender residence restrictions is extremely limited. Only one study (Minnesota Department of Corrections, 2007) has specifically examined the empirical relationship between residence restrictions and recidivism, and that study was prospective because no such law was in place. No true empirical evaluations of e...