Jeremy Carter

• Ph.D.
• Professor (Full) at Indiana University-Indianapolis

Objectives This study explores the level to which Gunshot Detection Technology (GDT) leads to increased arrests and stops as compared to shots fired calls for service (CFS) in Chicago, Illinois. Methods A two-process Knox test and point process test are applied to measure the level to which GDT alerts and CFS cluster with arrests and stops in spac...

A study was conducted to test the impact of Gunshot Detection Technology (GDT) in several areas of Chicago. The GDT coverage area in Chicago expanded from approximately 3 squaremiles to over 136 square-miles between 2012 and 2018. Gun recoveries significantly increased in GDT coverage areas relative to areas that did not use the technology, but GDT...

Objectives We examine the potential effects of gunshot detection technology longitudinally in Chicago through a synthetic control quasi-experiment. Methods Police districts receiving gunshot detection technology were compared to a synthetic control unit via a staggered difference-in-difference design. Across eleven unique gunshot detection technol...

Research Summary We apply the microsynthetic control method to evaluate the gun violence prevention effect of gunshot detection technology (GDT) in Kansas City, MO. We measure the influence of GDT on process measures (ballistic evidence collection and gun recoveries) and outcome measures (shots fired calls for service, non‐fatal shootings, fatal sh...

Objectives This study tests whether (1) shots fired calls for service in the gunshot detection technology (GDT) target area are more likely to be classified as unfounded; (2) police responses to shootings in the GDT target area are more likely to recover ballistic evidence or firearms; and (3) shootings in the GDT target area are more likely to be...

Research has shown that police officer involved shootings, misconduct and excessive use of force complaints exhibit network effects, where officers are at greater risk of being involved in these incidents when they socialize with officers who have a history of use of force and misconduct. In this work, we first construct a network survival model fo...

Gunshot detection technology (GDT) is expected to impact gun violence by accelerating the discovery and response to gunfire. GDT should further collect more accurate spatial data, as gunfire is assigned to coordinates measured by acoustic sensors rather than addresses reported via 9-1-1 calls for service (CFS). The current study explores the level...

Firearm violence rates have increased in U.S. cities in 2020 and into 2021. We investigate contagious and non-contagious space-time clustering in shooting events in four U.S. cities (Chicago, Los Angeles, New York and Philadelphia) from 2016-2020. We estimate the dynamic reproduction number (Rt) of shootings, a measure of contagion, using a Hawkes...

Purpose This 100-day experiment explored the impact of a dynamic place-based policing strategy on social harm in Indianapolis. Scholars have recently called for place-based policing to consider the co-occurrence of substance abuse and mental health problems that correlate within crime hot spots. Moreover, severity is not ubiquitous across harmful e...

Objectives Crime diversity is a measure of the variety of criminal offenses in a local environment, similar to ecological diversity. While crime diversity distributions have been explained via neutral models, to date the environmental and social mechanisms behind crime diversity have not been investigated. Building on recent work demonstrating that...

We review several concepts and modeling techniques from statistical and machine learning that have been developed to forecast recidivism. We show how these methods might be repurposed for forecasting police officer use of force. Using open Chicago police department use-of-force complaint data for illustration, we discuss feature engineering, constr...

Analysis and modeling of crime text report data has important applications, including refinement of crime classifications, clustering of documents, and feature extraction for spatiotemporal forecasts. Having better neural network representations of crime text data may facilitate all of these tasks. This paper evaluates the ability of generative adv...

Opioid overdose rates have increased in the United States over the past decade and reflect a major public health crisis. Modeling and prediction of drug and opioid hotspots, where a high percentage of events fall in a small percentage of space-time, could help better focus limited social and health services. In this work we present a spatial-tempor...

We described the change in drug overdoses during the COVID-19 pandemic in one urban emergency medical services (EMS) system. Data was collected from Marion County, Indiana (Indianapolis), including EMS calls for service (CFS) for suspected overdose, CFS in which naloxone was administered, and fatal overdose data from the County Coroner's Office. Wi...

Opioid overdose rates have increased in the United States over the past decade and reflect a major public health crisis. Modeling and prediction of drug and opioid hotspots, where a high percentage of events fall in a small percentage of space-time, could help better focus limited social and health services. In this work we present a spatial-tempor...

Purpose To determine if repeat and near repeat analysis is sensitive to the geocoding algorithm used for the underlying crime incident data. Methods The Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department provided 2016 crime incident data for five crime types: (1) shootings, (2) robberies, (3) residential burglaries, (4) theft of automobiles, and (5) thef...

Governments have implemented social distancing measures to address the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The measures include instructions that individuals maintain social distance when in public, school closures, limitations on gatherings and business operations, and instructions to remain at home. Social distancing may have an impact on the volume and d...

Governments have implemented social distancing measures to address the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The measures include instructions that individuals maintain a distance from one another when in public, limitations on gatherings and the operation of businesses, and instructions to remain at home. Social distancing may have a critical impact on the v...

Opioid addictions and overdoses have increased across the U.S. and internationally over the past decade. In urban environments, overdoses cluster in space and time, with 50% of overdoses occurring in less than 5% of the city and dozens of calls for emergency medical services being made within a 48-hour period. In this work, we introduce a system fo...

In today’s world, with the shifting nature of artificial intelligence (AI) to explainable AI, which involves humans and machines working and complementing each other, there is a need for a mechanism to govern their collaboration. We have proposed a trust-based mechanism to manage collaboration between them. Our trust-based mechanism has the ability...

Background Crime, traffic accidents, terrorist attacks, and other space-time random events are unevenly distributed in space and time. In the case of crime, hotspot and other proactive policing programs aim to focus limited resources at the highest risk crime and social harm hotspots in a city. A crucial step in the implementation of these strategi...

Objectives The law of crime concentration states that half of the cumulative crime in a city will occur within approximately 4% of the city’s geography. The law is demonstrated by counting the number of incidents in each of N spatial areas (street segments or grid cells) and then computing a parameter based on the counts, such as a point estimate o...

Purpose Despite increased scholarly inquiry regarding intelligence-led policing (ILP) and popularity among law enforcement agencies around the globe, ambiguity remains regarding the conceptual foundation and appropriate measurement of ILP. Although most scholars agree that ILP is indeed a unique policing philosophy, there is less consensus regardin...

Despite rapid growth in criminological studies of police technology, examinations of police land mobile radios are absent in the literature. This is troubling given the central role mobile radio serve in police operations and their significant management costs. The present study seeks to fill this gap by introducing the functionality of wireless br...

The law of crime concentration at place has become a criminological axiom and the foundation for one of the strongest evidence-based policing strategies to date. Using longitudinal data from three sources, emergency medical service calls, death toxicology reports from the Marion county (IN) coroner's office, and police crime data, we provide four u...

We introduce an API for forecasting the intensity of space-time events in urban environments and spatially allocating vehicles during times of peak demand to minimize response time. Our service is applicable to dynamic resource allocation problems that arise in ride sharing, mobile delivery, emergency vehicle placement, etc. We illustrate the servi...

Objectives. The law of crime concentration states that a large percentage of crime falls within a small area of a city. The law is demonstrated by counting the number of incidents in each of N spatial areas (street segments or grid cells) and then computing a statistic based on the counts, such as a point estimate on the Lorenz curve or the Gini in...

Cell phones are one of the most challenging forms of contraband for correctional facilities. The size of this problem is difficult to quantify. Confiscation data are only able to tell a partial story. Through the use of a unique data collection effort, this research details the number of contraband cell phones within a facility and offers the first...

Racial bias of predictive policing algorithms has been the focus of recent research and, in the case of Hawkes processes, feedback loops are possible where biased arrests are amplified through self-excitation, leading to hotspot formation and further arrests of minority populations. In this article we develop a penalized likelihood approach for int...

Crime, traffic accidents, terrorist attacks, and other space-time random events are unevenly distributed in space and time. In the case of crime, predictive policing algorithms aim to focus limited resources at the highest risk crime hotspots in a city. A crucial step in the implementation of these strategies is the construction of scoring models u...

Communities are adversely affected by heterogeneous social harm events (e.g., crime, traffic crashes, medical emergencies, drug use) and police, fire, health and social service departments are tasked with mitigating social harm through various types of interventions. Smart cities of the future will need to leverage IoT, data analytics, and governme...

Communities are adversely affected by heterogeneous social harm events, e.g. crime, traffic crashes, medical emergencies, and drug use. Police, fire, health and social service departments are tasked with mitigating social harm through various types of interventions. While social harm indices have been proposed for allocating resources to spatially...

Research has yet to identify a predictive relationship between crime and the issuance of aggregated concealed gun permits. The present study examines if a macro-level relationship exists between both concealed carry firearm applications and permits and violent crime committed with a firearm. Florida county-level data for concealed carry application...

Objectives This research examines the effect global positioning system (GPS) technology supervision has on pretrial misconduct for defendants facing intimate partner violence charges. Methods Drawing on data from one pretrial services division, a retrospective quasi-experimental design was constructed to examine failure to appear to court, failure...

Contraband cell phones pose significant challenges for correctional administrators and policy makers. Data to examine the nature of the contraband cell phone problem remains elusive, rendering much of the debate about how these issues have arisen and what can be done to resolve challenges informed by anecdotes. Using a data collection of 425,443 co...

Near repeat analysis has been increasingly used to measure the spatiotemporal clustering of crime in contemporary criminology. Despite its predictive capacity, the typically short time frame of near repeat crime patterns can negatively affect the crime prevention utility of near repeat analysis. Thus, recent research has argued for a greater unders...

Policing strategies that seek to simultaneously combat crime and vehicle crashes operate under the assumption that these two problems have a corollary relationship—an assumption that has received scant empirical attention and is the focus of the present study. Geocoded vehicle crash, violent crime, and property crime totals across were aggregated t...

This research examines end-user perceptions of an intelligence product disseminated from a state fusion center in the Northeast region of the United States. The current literature suffers from an empirical gap within the arena of contemporary law enforcement intelligence; largely because of the difficulty of obtaining data related to such practices...

A developing literature on intelligence-led policing (ILP) and law enforcement fusion centres contends that intelligence and data-driven policing practices can be enhanced through improved intelligence dissemination from fusion centres. The literature has remained relatively silent on the extent to which law enforcement has connectivity with fusion...

Information sharing research has largely focused on capturing operational practices related to the exchange of information. A noticeable shortcoming of this developing literature is the lack of scholarly attention focused specifically on analytic personnel. The present study employs semi-structured interviews with 23 personnel that comprise the ana...

The fusion center literature is limited and lacks consensus regarding operational focus and strategic priorities. Perhaps the lone consistent finding in this literature is the lack of awareness among outsiders regarding what fusion centers do and the capabilities they provide. Contemporary communication research indicates the Internet serves as the...

The national network of fusion centers, of which there are currently 78 nationwide, was created in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and continue to play an integral role in contemporary law enforcement. Their mission, put simply, is to facilitate information sharing across disparate agencies and organizations. Despite a signi...

There is a substantial body of literature that examines police practices, behavioural responses, and victim cooperation when the police respond to intimate partner or domestic violence (IPV/DV) incidents. Less scholarly attention is given to the complex justice system response to IPV/DV incidents in which the police are one of many collaborative ac...

Previous research employing an institutional theoretical framework posits environmental factors play an integral role in the adoption of police practices. The present study applies this framework to examine the adoption of intelligence-led policing (ILP). Data from a purposive sample of national intelligence personnel from 254 agencies are used to...

Programming, management, and interoperability of land mobile radios within the public safety sector have long been salient issues for policymakers, practitioners, service vendors, and scholars. Despite receiving substantial attention in the form of government expenditure and agency task forces, there has only been moderate advancement in this conce...

Research examining police departments' use of technology is underdeveloped relative to other areas of policing. This gap in the literature is troubling as policing models are becoming more data-driven and thus, relying more heavily on information technologies. Arguably, the most commonly utilised technology in policing practice, and examined in pol...

Evaluations are routinely conducted by government agencies and research organizations to assess the effectiveness of technology in criminal justice. Interdisciplinary research methods are salient to this effort. Technology evaluations are faced with a number of challenges including (1) the need to facilitate effective communication between social s...

At present, the average homicide clearance rate in the United States is approximately 65%, down roughly 15% from the mid-1970s. This research seeks to inform how police can best improve homicide clearance rates by identifying best practices in homicide investigations. To accomplish this goal, as part of a federally funded project, seven geographica...

There is currently a lack of empirical insights which explore the activities related to state and local law enforcement’s analytic function. This research is intended to remedy this shortcoming. Drawing on a national sample of 345 state and local law enforcement agencies, this research provides an empirical description of the types of analytic acti...

The lack of information sharing among law enforcement agencies leading up to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks has been well documented. An emphasis on interaction among law enforcement agencies with other government and private sector organizations has been reinforced in contemporary counter-terrorism efforts. Despite this emphasis, very lit...

Though research has explored impacts of mobile computing and information technology on police operations, the literature lacks exploration of large-bandwidth data-sharing technologies that enhance the utility of mobile computing terminals. As part of a federally funded project, the present study employs a longitudinal pre- and postdesign utilizing...

The intent of this study is to explore organisational factors that, both conceptually and operationally, facilitate or inhibit a police agency from adopting intelligence-led policing (ILP). Research to date is yet to explore organisational factors related to ILP among American law enforcement agencies. Drawing from original survey data of national...

After the attacks of September 11, 2001, American law enforcement was confronted with the reality that the mechanisms utilized by federal, state, and local police to share information across jurisdictions were inadequate. Intelligence-led policing is the emerging philosophy by which law enforcement can actively engage in information sharing to prev...

In the wake of a series of tragic events impacting public health in the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department of Homeland Security have attempted to facilitate information sharing across public health and homeland security organizations. Data collected as part of a n...

Today's law enforcement officers—both conservation and police—find themselves adapting to an emerging and dynamic threat environment. Policies and practices aimed at the prevention of threats have focused primarily on federal, state, and local police agencies. At a time when terrorists, extremists, and activists have begun to widen their array of a...

The September 11 attacks impacted society generally, and law enforcement specifically, in dramatic ways. One of the major trends has been changing expectations regarding criminal intelligence practices among state, local, and tribal (SLT) law enforcement agencies and the need to coordinate intelligence efforts and share information at all levels of...

A series of tragic events over the last three years has further strengthened the emerging preventative and proactive philosophies adopted by US law enforcement post-September 11, 2001. Law enforcement and the American public now have a heightened awareness of homegrown terrorism. While these terrorist actors operate independent of traditional terro...

Evidence-Based Intelligence Practices: Examining the Role of Fusion Centers as a Critical Source of Information Despite dramatic changes in the intelligence infrastructure and the growth of fusion centers following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the acknowledgement that local intelligence is critical to the prevention and deterrence of terrorist...

Corruption in Corporate America: Who is Responsible? Who Will Protect the Public Interest? Abraham L. Gitlow. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc. 2005. ISBN 0–7618–3197–5 Paperback US $31.00. 190 pages.

Intelligence fusion centers have grown rapidly in the last few years as state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies have attempted to find the best way to share information about threats to their communities. The Department of Homeland Security and the Information Sharing Environment of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence embr...

Policing in the post-9/11 era is experiencing a philosophical change that is expanding community- and problem-oriented policing to include the broader philosophy of intelligence-led policing (ILP). Building on the British experience, the application of ILP to American policing has been complicated by a number of challenges. Although stimulated by 9...

In an effort to most effectively protect the United States from “all threats and all hazards”, an enormous amount of initiatives and attention have been directed at the development of public-private partnerships between law enforcement, the Intelligence Community and the private sector. However, little attention has been given to how these partners...

Thesis (M.S.)--Michigan State University. School of Criminal Justice, 2006. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 84-87). Microfiche. s