Jennifer L. Aaker

• Stanford University

Marken werden oft mit Menschen verglichen. Sie sollen über eine Persönlichkeit verfügen wie ein Mensch. Zur Erklärung der menschlichen Persönlichkeit wurde umfangreiche Forschung betrieben. Unter anderem wurden die „Big Five“ Persönlichkeitsdimensionen entwickelt und deren jeweilige Bedeutung in verschiedenen Studien beleuchtet. Mit Blick auf die K...

In this conceptual paper, we review three decades of research on time and meaning in consumer research and psychology to identify key themes that have emerged, build frameworks that integrate past research, and reveal areas of potential for future empirical exploration. We begin by carving out a conceptual understanding of meaning in life and ident...

Why do consumers often feel pressed for time? This research provides a novel answer to this question: consumers' subjective perceptions of goal conflict. The authors show that beyond the number of goals competing for consumers' time, perceived conflict between goals makes them feel that they have less time. Five experiments demonstrate that perceiv...

Across five studies, this research reveals that feeling powerful increases saving. This effect is driven by the desire to maintain one’s current state. When the purpose of saving is no longer to accumulate money but to spend it on a status-related product, the basic effect is reversed, and those who feel powerless save more. Further, if money can n...

Consumers often feel pressed for time, but why? This research provides a novel answer to this question: subjective perceptions of goal conflict. We show that beyond the number of goals competing for their time, perceived conflict between goals makes consumers feel that they have less time. Five experiments demonstrate that perceiving greater confli...

This research examines the effect of target marketing on members of the advertiser's intended audience as well as members not in the target market: the "non-target market." The results of three experiments show that unfavorable non-target market effects are stronger for members of non-distinctive groups (e.g., Causasian individuals, heterosexual in...

Past research on dual process models of persuasion has documented that, when faced with information incongruity, individuals tend to form product evaluations by attenuating the less diagnostic information, relying solely on the more diagnostic information. The current research suggests that this way of resolving incongruity may be culture specific....

This research explores the extent to which differences in perceived diagnosticity as compared with differences in the accessibility of associations embedded in persuasion appeals better account for the attitudinal differences found in the culture and persuasion literature. Experiment 1 replicates basic findings showing that high culture-distinct as...

Although a substantial amount of research has examined the constructs of warmth and competence, far less has examined how these constructs develop and what benefits may accrue when warmth and competence are cultivated. Yet there are positive consequences, both emotional and behavioral, that are likely to occur when brands hold perceptions of both....

Although a substantial amount of research has examined the link between money and happiness, far less has examined the link between time and happiness. This paper argues, however, that time plays a critical role in understanding happiness, and it complements the money-spending happiness principles in Dunn, Gilbert, and Wilson (2011) by offering fiv...

The results of five field and laboratory experiments reveal a "time vs. money effect" whereby activating time (vs. money) leads to a favorable shift in product attitudes and decisions. Because time increases focus on product experience, activating time (vs. money) augments one's personal connection with the product, thereby boosting attitudes and d...

Why do people give to others? One principal driver involves one's identity: who one is and how they view themselves. The degree to which identities are malleable, involve a readiness to act, and help make sense of the world have significant implications determining whether and how much people give. Drawing on the Identity-Based Motivation model (IB...

Why do people give to others? One principal driver involves one's identity: who one is and how they view themselves. The degree to which identities are malleable, involve a readiness to act, and help make sense of the world have significant implications determining whether and how much people give. Drawing on the Identity-Based Motivation model (IB...

In two longitudinal experiments, conducted both in the field and lab, we investigated the recollection of mixed emotions. Results demonstrated that the intensity of mixed emotions is generally underestimated at the time of recall-an effect that increases over time and does not occur to the same degree with unipolar emotions. Of note, the decline in...

What types of products are preferred when the purchase is immediate versus off in the distant future? Three experiments address this question by examining the influence of temporal perspective on evaluations of regulatory-framed products. The results reveal that when a purchase is about to be made, consumers prefer prevention- (vs. promotion-) fram...

n three longitudinal experiments, conducted both in the field and lab, we investigate the recollection of mixed emotions. Results demonstrate that mixed emotions are generally underreported at the time of recall, an effect which appears to grow over time and does not occur to the same degree with unipolar emotions. Importantly, the decline in memor...

How are notions of hierarchy and equality structured cognitively, how do they link to the self concept, and how do they develop? Building on the base of work on horizontal/vertical cultural distinctions, this commentary discusses possible answers to these questions, focusing specifically on beliefs (e.g., egalitarianism versus group-based dominance...

Using Monte Carlo simulations, this paper evaluates the bias properties of common estimators used in growth regressions derived from the Solow model. We explicitly allow for measurement error in the right-hand side variables, as well as country-specific effects that are correlated with the regressors. Our results suggest that using an OLS estimator...

The consequences of having an illness have two crucial types of stakes: for self and for family. Therefore, the current research examines the effectiveness of health messages that present consequences for the self or family, focusing specifically on the dual role played by emotions in serving these stakes: as a provider of resources and of informat...

We focus on three critical areas of future research on regulatory fit. The first focuses on how regulatory orientation gets sustained. We argue that there are two distinct approaches that bring about the ‘just right feeling’: (1) process-based (involving the interaction between regulatory orientation and decision making processes) and (2) outcome-b...

The paper pulls together streams of culture-related research found in information processing and behavioral decision theory literatures, and complements them with a focus on motivations and goals. We propose a framework that suggests that (a) the treatment of culture is useful when it incorporates subcultures, including those defined by nationality...

Four experiments demonstrate that culture-based differences in persuasion arise when information is processed in a cursory, spontaneous manner, but dissipate when one's intuitions are supplemented by more deliberative processing. North Americans are more persuaded by promotion-focused information, and Chinese individuals are more persuaded by preve...

This research examines the dynamic process of inference updating. We present a framework that delineates two mechanisms that guide the updating of personality trait inferences about brands. The results of three experiments show that chronics (those for whom the trait is accessible) update their initial inferences based on the trait implications of...

This research demonstrates that people's goals associated with regulatory focus moderate the effect of message framing on persuasion. The results of 6 experiments show that appeals presented in gain frames are more persuasive when the message is promotion focused, whereas loss-framed appeals are more persuasive when the message is prevention focuse...

Researchers argue that the effectiveness of cognitive versus affective persuasive appeals depends in part on whether the appeal is congruent or incongruent with a primarily cognitive or affective attitude base. However, considerable research suggests these persuasion effects may hold only for predominantly effective attitudes and not cognitive atti...

contributed equally and are listed in reversed alphabetical order. The authors thank Aimee Drolet for her help in data collection, and Brian Sternthal for his helpful comments on this research. 3 This research demonstrates that people’s goals associated with approach and avoidance needs, as well as perceived risk, moderate the effect of message fra...

This research sheds insight on the psychological impact of mixed emotions on attitudes. In three experiments, we show that persuasion appeals that highlight conflicting emotions (e.g., both happiness and sadness) lead to less favorable attitudes for individuals with a lower propensity to accept duality (e.g., Anglo Americans, younger adults) relati...

this paper. Finally the authors extend thanks to David Glen Mick, the associate editor and three reviemersbr their many thoughtful comments and suggestions

This research argues that the meaning embedded in consumption symbols, such as commercial brands, can serve to represent and institutionalize the values and beliefs of a culture. Relying on a combined emic-etic approach, the authors conducted 4 studies to examine how symbolic and expressive attributes associated with commercial brands are structure...

In two studies, we investigate how differences in self-construal patterns affect preferences for consumption symbols through the process of self-expression. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that individuals with a dominant independent self-construal hold attitudes that allow them to express that they are distinct from others. In contrast, individ...

This research argues that the meaning embedded in consumption symbols, such as commercial brands, can serve to represent and institutionalize the values and beliefs of a culture. Relying on a combined emic-etic approach, the authors conducted 4 studies to examine how symbolic and expressive attributes associated with commercial brands are structure...

In four experiments, we show that goals associated with approach and avoidance needs influence persuasion and that the accessibility of distinct self-views moderates these effects. Specifically, individuals with an accessible independent self-view are more persuaded by promotion-focused information that is consistent with an approach goal. In contr...

Emotional advertisements have a substantial impact on consumer attitudes, as well as upon purchase intentions. However, research on the influence of emotional appeals on memory has been somewhat mixed, with some researchers asserting that they result in poor consumer memory, while others argue that if tested properly, they have a substantial impact...

This research sheds insight on the psychological impact of mixed emotions on attitudes. In four experiments, we show that persuasion appeals that highlight conflicting emotions (e.g., happy and sad) lead to less favorable attitudes for individuals with a lower propensity to accept duality (e.g., Anglo Americans, younger adults) relative to those wi...

Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between self-regulatory processes that focus on promotion and prevention strategies for goal pursuit. Five studies provide support for the hypothesis that these strategies differ for individuals with distinct self-construals. Specifically, individuals with a dominant independent self-construal were predicted to...

Past research on dual process models of persuasion has documented that, when faced with infor- mation incongruity, individuals tend to form product evaluations by attenuating the less diagnos- tic information, relying solely on the more diagnostic information. The current research suggests that this way of resolving incongruity may be culture speci...

This research explores the extent to which differences in perceived diagnosticity as compared with differences in the accessibility of associations embedded in persuasion appeals better account for the attitudinal differences found in the culture and persuasion literature. Experiment 1 replicates basic findings showing that high culture-distinct as...

Considerable research in consumer experimental psychology has examined the self-expressive role of brands but has found little support for the premise that the interaction of the personality traits associated with a brand and those associated with an individual's self-concept influence attitudes. The current research focuses on the influence of the...

Considerable research in consumer experimental psychology has examined the self-expressive role of brands but has found little support for the premise that the interaction of the personality traits associated with a brand and those associated with an individual's self-concept influence attitudes. The current research focuses on the influence of the...

This research examines the persuasive effect of emotional appeals on members of collectivist versus individualist cultures. The results of two experiments demonstrate that ego-focused (e.g., pride, happiness) versus other-focused (e.g., empathy, peacefulness) emotional appeals lead to more favorable attitudes for members of a collectivist culture,...

Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the Big Five dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been l...

Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the “Big Five” dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been...

The objective of this research is to assess the cross-cultural generalizability of persuasion effects predicted by dual process models. In two experiments, the impact of motivation, congruity of persuasive communication and the diagnosticity of heuristic cues on the processing strategies and product evaluations of members of a collectivist culture...