Janine L. Brown

• PhD
• Reproductive Physiologist at Smithsonian Institution

Noninvasive faecal hormone analyses can provide valuable information on the physiological state of wild animals and how they respond to ecological changes or anthropogenic disturbances. However, preservation techniques to prevent hormone alteration can be problematic, and not all are field friendly. We compared five processing methodologies to pres...

The brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) is a flightless, nocturnal bird native to New Zealand and is classified as “At Risk” due to predation from domestic dogs and ferrets. In the U.S., brown kiwi have been managed under the AZA Animal Population Management and Studbook Program since 2006, with the Smithsonian National Zoological Park (NZP) and Conserva...

Background Elephants provide valuable insight into how early-life adverse events (ELAEs) associate with animal health and welfare because they can live to advanced ages, display extensive cognitive and memory capabilities, and rely heavily on social bonds. Although it is known that African savanna elephants that experienced ELAEs, such as being orp...

Stress negatively impacts university students, leading to adverse outcomes. While canine-assisted intervention (CAI) has been shown to reduce self-reported stress, no studies have investigated stress levels and associated biomarkers in dogs and students simultaneously. This study examined salivary cortisol, blood pressure, and pulse rate in 122 uni...

Sea turtles are large reptiles that inhabit the world's oceans and include seven extant species within two families: Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae. These species are threatened globally, with several subpopulations listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Thailand hosts five sea turtle species, including leatherback turtles (Derm...

The early detection of lameness in elephants is essential for effective treatment and welfare enhancement, but subtle gait abnormalities are often difficult to identify visually. This study aimed to evaluate vertical movement symmetry in Asian elephants using cross-correlation analysis of data from inertial measurement units (IMUs). Six elephants w...

Clouded leopards are notoriously difficult to manage under human care due to their tendency toward high stress, intersex aggression, and limited reproductive success. This case study investigated the endocrinological interplay between adrenal and ovarian steroids and describes a positive correlation between concentrations of fecal estrogen and gluc...

Background Approximately one-third of Asian elephants are managed under human care, participating in educational, cultural, religious, and tourist activities. Management conditions vary considerably among venues, raising questions about whether welfare needs are consistently being met, particularly for Asian tourist camp elephants. To evaluate the...

A key driver of the African savannah elephant population decline is the loss of habitat and associated human–elephant conflict. Elephant physiological responses to these pressures, however, are largely unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we evaluated faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations as an indicator of adrenal activity and...

The Felidae family, comprised of 41 species including the domestic cat, is widely divergent in geographic range and phenotype, with body sizes ranging from 1.5–300 kg. Tracking and characterizing ovarian activity non-invasively via fecal steroid metabolite analysis has been key to understanding basic reproduction, especially in non-domestic felids....

Simple Summary Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) represents a significant viral infection in young Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). The EEHV1A genotype predominantly induces EEHV hemorrhagic disease, while the EEHV4 genotype also contributes to hemorrhagic symptoms affecting the gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems, often leadin...

Welfare is a fundamental aspect of animal management and conservation. In light of growing public awareness and welfare concerns about captive elephants, there is an urgent need for comprehensive, globally coordinated efforts for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) that participate in religious, logging, or tourist activities in range countries where...

The international travel ban instituted by the Thai government in March 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how tourist camp elephants were managed, with reductions in exercise opportunities, longer chaining hours, and diminished food provisioning. This study was conducted to determine how those changes affected health and we...

Male elephants regularly undergo a unique sexual period of musth that is characterized by elevated testosterone, analogous to the heightened reproductive seasonality of other mammals but distinct because it is nonseasonal and asynchronous among males. Our knowledge of male reproductive biology in elephants is limited compared to females, restrictin...

Understanding and mediating health conditions in endangered species under human care is important to optimize welfare and ex-situ breeding, as animals experience novel stressors inherent to a captive environment. Some species are able to adapt to their new environment with little consequence, while others respond with behavioral changes and experie...

Corticosterone concentrations have been measured in amphibians by collecting blood or urine samples. However, blood sampling is invasive, and urine can be difficult to collect. A novel method of swabbing the skin of an amphibian has been utilized in numerous species but has not been verified in marine toads (Rhinella marina). This pilot study teste...

Introduction Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant activity and accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which can have detrimental effects on animal health. Annual fluctuations in oxidative stress status can occur, increasing disease susceptibility during certain time periods. However, a full understanding of fact...

Using DNA methylation profiles (n = 15,456) from 348 mammalian species, we constructed phyloepigenetic trees that bear marked similarities to traditional phylogenetic ones. Using unsupervised clustering across all samples, we identified 55 distinct cytosine modules, of which 30 are related to traits such as maximum life span, adult weight, age, sex...

Using DNA methylation profiles (n = 15,456) from 348 mammalian species, we constructed phyloepigenetic trees that bear marked similarities to traditional phylogenetic ones. Using unsupervised clustering across all samples, we identified 55 distinct cytosine modules, of which 30 are related to traits such as maximum life span, adult weight, age, sex...

Simple Summary The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is critically endangered, so artificial insemination (AI) is an important conservation tool. Electroejaculation (EE) protocols have been optimized to obtain sufficient amounts of viable sperm for artificial insemination in many felid species; however, less attention has been paid to animal we...

We provide novel genomic resources to help understand the genomic traits involved in elephant health and to aid conservation efforts. We sequence 11 elephant genomes (5 African savannah, 6 Asian) from North American zoos, including 9 de novo assemblies. We estimate elephant germline mutation rates and reconstruct demographic histories. Finally, we...

Simple Summary Oxidative stress is an adverse condition in animals that can cause tissue damage and result in poor health. A number of factors can contribute to this condition, although little has been studied empirically in elephants. This study measured multiple serum oxidative status markers and a stress biomarker (fecal glucocorticoid metabolit...

On 5 September 2022, a dead baleen whale was found stranded at Laem Phak Bia, Phetchaburi, the Gulf of Thailand, Thailand but could not be identified because it was in an advanced stage of decomposition. It was first suspected to be Omura’s whale (Balaenoptera Omurai), as that is a common species in the Gulf of Thailand. However, the cranium morpho...

Stressors over the lifespan can contribute to physiological dysregulation, or allostatic load. Allostatic load has been studied in humans using allostatic load indices (ALIs) for over 25 years, but the same methods are rarely applied to other species. We constructed an ALI for zoo-housed western lowland gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos and tested...

We provide novel genomic resources to help understand the genomic traits involved in elephant health and to aid conservation efforts. We sequence 11 elephant genomes (5 African savannah, 6 Asian) from North American zoos, including 9 de novo assemblies. We estimate elephant germline mutation rates and reconstruct demographic histories. Finally, we...

Osteoarthritis (OA) is common in zoo Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. This study investigated the relationship between confirmed or suspected OA with ovarian cyclicity, gonadotropins, progestagens, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and collagen type I (CTX-I) in zoo elephants. In Asian...

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) are a coastal species found in Thai waters off the coasts of the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. This species was recently re-listed as near-threatened by the IUCN Red List, though the population status in Thai seas is not known. Here, we investigated genetic diversity, population structure,...

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the tourism industry, especially in Thailand. Starting in April 2020, the Thai government banned international travel and all elephant tourist camps closed. A wide variety of management changes were implemented because of the lack of income from tourists. This study surveyed 30 camps that cared...

Zoological institutions aim to continually improve the lives of the animals under their stewardship. To this end, bull elephants are now increasingly maintained in all-male groups to mimic social conditions observed in the wild. While cortisol is the most frequently used “stress” biomarker, secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) as a measure of health a...

Although biomarkers are often used for predicting morbidity and mortality in humans, similar data are lacking in our closest relatives. This study analyzed 16 biomarkers in zoo-housed chimpanzees and bonobos from serum samples collected during both routine and nonroutine veterinary immobilizations. Generalized linear and generalized linear mixed mo...

Simple Summary Biomarkers are molecules found in the body that can indicate current physiological functioning and are frequently used to monitor health and diagnose disease. These biomarkers, such as hormones and immune markers, can provide valuable information on the health and welfare of animals. Knowledge on the normal levels of these biomarkers...

The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is the largest and one of the most migratory turtle species, inhabiting oceans throughout the world. There has been a steady decline in leatherback populations over the past several decades due to human activities. They are considered endangered in Thailand and global, so conservation strategies are...

Cetaceans inhabit oceans throughout the world. Four specific odontocetes, namely Cuvier's beaked whale ( Ziphius cavirostris), Indo Pacific finless porpoise ( Neophocaena phocaenoides), pygmy sperm whale ( Kogia breviceps), and dwarf sperm whale ( Kogia sima), have occasionally been found stranded along Thailand's coastal waters (the Andaman Sea an...

Simple Summary The conservation of endangered species and sustainability of managed populations requires good health and welfare of individuals. Male elephants experience a biological phenomenon called “musth”, characterized by a suite of physiological and behavioral changes which serve to facilitate copulation between the sexes, but can also pose...

The aim of this study was to examine relationships among serum progestagens, cortisol, and prolactin in pregnant and normal cycling Asian elephants living in tourist camps in northern Thailand. Samples were collected twice a month for 22 months from nine elephants. Of those, four were pregnant (24.3 ± 2.9 years of age; range 21–28 years) and five (...

Simple Summary For this study, skin samples were analyzed from 77 individual stranded dugongs collected in Thai waters from 1994–2019 using six microsatellite markers to assess the genetic diversity and population structure. Dugongs in the Andaman Sea had higher genetic variation than those in the Gulf of Thailand. Populations in Trang, Satun and s...

Approximately 40% of amphibian species are threatened with extinction. The welfare of amphibians maintained under managed care as assurance populations is of vital importance to guard against extinction and provide a viable source population for future reintroduction. To manage amphibian species properly ex situ, it is important to understand how s...

A therapeutic regimen that includes antiviral drugs is critical for the survival of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves infected with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD), with acyclovir showing considerable promise. The purpose of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of acyclovir f...

Hemorrhagic disease (HD) caused by a group of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) is one of the leading causes of death for young elephants in human care. These viruses are widespread and typically persist latently in adult elephants with no negative effects; however, in juvenile Asian and more recently young African elephants, the onset...

Background Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) that is a major cause of death in juvenile Asian elephants with EEHV1 and EEHV4 being the most prevalent. Aim To perform a retrospective clinical data analysis. Methods Records of a total of 103 cases in Thailand confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on...

Marine mammals vary greatly in size and lifespan across species. This study determined whether measures of adult body weight, length and relative telomere length were related to lifespan. Skin tissue samples (n = 338) were obtained from 23 marine mammal species, including four Mysticeti, 19 Odontoceti and one dugong species, and the DNA extracted t...

Stereotypies are abnormal behaviors found in a wide range of animals that have been used as indicators of poor welfare. Elephants used in tourism have been reported to perform stereotypic behavior, but the occurrence has not been systematically assessed. The aims of this study were to ascertain the percentage of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by t...

Simple Summary Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species, whether free-ranging or managed to varying degrees under human care. The welfare-based design of a new habitat for Asian elephants focused on meeting the elephants’ physical, physiological, psychological, and social nee...

Simple Summary A change in hematology profiles is one indicator of EEHV infection before clinical signs appear; however, to be effective, individual baselines and age-matched reference values are needed. A longitudinal investigation of viremia, hematology values, and stress biomarkers was performed in three non-EEHV and six prior infected EEHV calv...

Simple Summary Riding elephants is one of the most controversial activities in the tourist industry, with concerns over whether load carrying is physically harmful. Here, we used an empirical approach to test how carrying loads up to 15% of the elephant’s body mass affected gait parameters. The maximal angles of fore- and hindlimb joints of elephan...

Age‐associated DNA‐methylation profiles have been used successfully to develop highly accurate biomarkers of age ("epigenetic clocks") in humans, mice, dogs, and other species. Here we present epigenetic clocks for African and Asian elephants. These clocks were developed using novel DNA methylation profiles of 140 elephant blood samples of known ag...

Dugong (Dugong dugon) populations have been shrinking globally, due in large part to habitat fragmentation, degradation and ocean pollution, and today are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Thus, determining genetic diversity in the remaining populations is essential for conservation planning and protection. In this study, measures of inter-simple s...

Hemorrhagic disease (HD) caused by a group of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) is one of the leading causes of death for young elephants in human care. These viruses are widespread and typically persist latently in adult elephants with no negative effects; however, in juvenile Asian and more recently young African elephants, the onset...

ABSTRACT Aging is often perceived as a degenerative process caused by random accrual of cellular damage over time. In spite of this, age can be accurately estimated by epigenetic clocks based on DNA methylation profiles from almost any tissue of the body. Since such pan-tissue epigenetic clocks have been successfully developed for several different...

Many captive Asian elephant populations are not self-sustaining, possibly due in part to obesity-related health and reproductive issues. This study investigated relationships between estimated body composition and metabolic function, inflammatory markers, ovarian activity (females only) and physical activity levels in 44 Asian elephants ( n =35 fem...

AZA Connect magazine, AZA CGF grant update. Published in the January issue, available to AZA members at: https://assets.speakcdn.com/assets/2332/web_connect_january_2021.pdf

Great apes and humans develop many of the same health conditions, including cardiac disease as a leading cause of death. In humans, lipid markers are strong predictors of morbidity and mortality risk. To determine if they similarly predict risk in gorillas, we measured five serum lipid markers and calculated three lipoprotein ratios from zoo-housed...

Conservation strategies for crocodilians often include captive breeding to create stable assurance populations. Evaluating adrenal and gonadal hormone patterns can provide animal managers with data to more effectively monitor animal welfare and reproductive status. This study evaluated the effects of season (breeding, nesting or off), sex (male and...

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is a major cause of death in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves. A 2-year, 11-month-old female, captive Asian elephant presented with facial edema and a mild fever. Blood samples were collected and showed EEHV1A positivity with a high viral load by real time PCR. Heterophil toxicity also was reporte...

The ability to estimate age and determine the growth status of free-ranging dugongs ( Dugong dugon ) is vital to providing insight into the basic biology of this endangered species. Currently, age estimation in dugong carcasses relies on counting dentin growth layer groups (GLGs) in tusks, but a disadvantage is they need to be intact. We explored w...

Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species and includes breeding of individuals managed under human care. Understanding how factors in the captive environment affect individual animal wellbeing can be aided by long-term monitoring of biological functioning. This study involved...

Simple Summary Zoological institutions place strong emphasis on monitoring the welfare of individual animals in their care. Long-term behavior data can be integrated into zoological management to allow for adjustments on a continuous basis as animals respond over time to social, environmental, or physical changes. Behavioral observations conducted...

Simple Summary How tourist camp activities affect individual elephant welfare is an important and highly debated topic. Saliva and fecal samples were collected monthly for 1 year from 44 female Asian elephants that participated in three programs (saddle-, bareback-, or no-riding), and analyzed for glucocorticoids (GC) and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Th...

Simple Summary Biomarkers are biological molecules found in the blood or other fluids or tissues that can indicate normal or abnormal processes or disease. Developing tools to measure biomarkers that indicate immune function and establishing concentrations observed within a species is an important first step in their use for managing health and und...

Age-associated DNA-methylation profiles have been used successfully to develop highly accurate biomarkers of age (“epigenetic clocks”) in humans, mice, dogs, and other species. Here we present epigenetic clocks for African and Asian elephants. These clocks were developed using novel DNA methylation profiles of 140 elephant blood samples of known ag...

In Thailand, many elephants are used in tourism, with populations sustained by breeding of animals that are in captive habitats. Even though there are programs to promote breeding, there is not success in all camps. In this study, there was summarization of reproductive performance data of 407 elephants (150 males, 257 females) at seven tourist cam...

Embryo transfer is an important assisted reproductive technique to increase the efficacy of reproduction in dairy cattle, although responses to superovulation therapies remain inconsistent. Stress can negatively affect reproduction in farm animals, and could be a factor in compromising ovulation induction and embryo transfer success due to intensiv...

Conservation strategies for crocodilians often include captive breeding to create stable assurance populations. Evaluating adrenal and gonadal hormone patterns can provide animal managers with data to more effectively monitor animal welfare and reproductive status. This study evaluated the effects of season (breeding, nesting, or off), sex (male an...

Hyperprolactinemia is an endocrine disorder associated with infertility in many species, including elephants. In a recent survey of zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), over half of African elephant females (N = 101) were not cycling normally, 30% of which exhibited hyperprolactinemia. We examined whether life experience...

The impact of visitors on the well-being of captive animals presents both positive and potentially negative consequences. While some amount of novelty through visitor stimulation offers the opportunity for a more complex captive environment, anecdotal evidence from primate staff observations at the Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biolog...

Simple Summary In Thailand, captive elephants are used in tourism and involved in a variety of activities, such as feeding, bathing, riding, or just observation. The welfare of these elephants has been a topic of intense debate in recent years, resulting in divergent opinions on what are or are not appropriate uses. This paper summarizes the curren...

Allostatic load, or the physiological dysregulation accumulated due to senescence and stress, is an established predictor of human morbidity and mortality and has been proposed as a tool for monitoring health and welfare in captive wildlife. It is estimated by combining biomarkers from multiple somatic systems into allostatic load indices (ALIs), p...

This review paper is a synthesis of results from multiple studies that we have conducted over the past several years using similar methodologies to identify factors related to welfare of captive populations of elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. Using multiple conservation physiology tools, we found that, despite vastly dis...

The ex situ population of fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus) has become increasingly important for the conservation of this species. Unfortunately, captivity-induced stress is a concern and potential factor for lack of breeding success in this small felid, resulting in an unsustainable population. The objectives of this study were to: 1) valida...

GPS collars have revolutionized the field of animal ecology, providing detailed information on animal movement and the habitats necessary for species survival. GPS collars also have the potential to cause adverse effects ranging from mild irritation to severe tissue damage, reduced fitness, and death. The impact of GPS collars on the behavior, stre...

Simple Summary Salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and cortisol concentrations were measured in Asian elephants to determine circadian rhythm effects and the relationship between both biomarkers. Saliva samples were collected every 4 h from 06:00 to 22:00 h for 3 consecutive days (n = 15 samples/elephant). We used enzyme immunoassays for quantificatio...

To achieve self-sustaining and genetically diverse populations ex situ, captive breeding programmes must ensure good overall rates of reproduction, and equal contribution across individuals. Previous research in the critically endangered eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) revealed a high incidence of irregular oestrous cyclicity;...

EEHV incidence in captive elephants in Thailand

Arthritis affects women more so than men, particularly after menopause. Sex hormones may play a role in arthritis development, yet this is still unclear. Elephants have a similar lifespan to humans and develop arthritis and joint issues (musculoskeletal impairments (MI)), but do not undergo menopause. Interestingly, many female zoo elephants do not...

Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations...

A recent large-scale welfare study in North America involving 106 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 131 African (Loxodonta africana) elephants at 64 accredited facilities identified links (i.e., risk factors) between zoo environmental factors and a number of welfare outcomes (stereotypic behavior, ovarian acyclicity, hyperprolactinemia, walking and recum...

To reverse the trend of declining wildlife populations globally, individuals must be provided with conditions that allow them to not just survive, but to thrive. It is no longer only the remit of captive breeding programs to ensure animal well-being; in situ conservation efforts also must consider how environmental and anthropogenic pressures impac...

GPS collars have revolutionized the field of animal ecology, providing detailed information on animal movement and the habitats necessary for species survival. GPS collars also have the potential to cause adverse effects ranging from mild irritation to severe tissue damage, reduced fitness, and death. The impact of GPS collars on the behavior, stre...

While many of the traditional scientific disciplines have developed over centuries, animal conservation is a relative newcomer. It relies on multiple specialties with different levels of expertise that, eventually, generate vast amounts of data. More specifically, conservation physiology is an emerging area that can be defined as ‘an integrative sc...

The previous edition of this book mainly provided a snapshot of the state of the art in terms of species-specific reproductive biology and emerging technologies. The influence of environmental changes on reproductive fitness was introduced but not fully explored. The objectives of this second edition were to (1) emphasize the need for holistic and...

Captive elephant populations are not self-sustaining due to health concerns possibly related to obesity. Categorizing obesity relies on qualitative analyses like body condition scores (BCS). However, elephant indices have not been validated against measured body composition. The objective was to compare BCS systems to body composition determined by...

The elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) has been a known cause of death of young elephants in Thailand for over a decade. In this study, we report on the demography, disease characteristics and mortality of 58 elephants with confirmed EEHV hemorrhagic disease between January 2006 and August 2018 using retrospective data subjected to surviv...