James Steele

• BSc (Hons), PhD
• Director at Steele Research Limited

Despite its apparent intuitiveness and widespread interest across various fields, ‘effort’ is a concept that seems difficult to define. The purpose of this article is to consider and define ‘effort’ during attempted task performance. In doing so I argue for distinction between the actual effort (objective effort) required, and the perception of tha...

Wheelchair rugby (WCR) is an indoor contact sport. The sport is commonly known for its paralympic discipline, WCR Fours. A more inclusive version of the sport, WCR Fives, was developed recently. Previously, it has been reported that sprint and repeated sprint (RS) ability are crucial for success in WCR. However, very little is known about the diffe...

Supervision during resistance training (RT) may enhance strength gains by optimizing trainee effort. We investigated supervision's role in effort during RT in a unique setting with private strength clinics, where members train either unsupervised ("Core" membership) or supervised by a qualified exercise scientist ("Assisted" membership). Using both...

When defining concepts for scientific work, researchers consider various desiderata (desired characteristics) that are derived from higher level meta-desiderata regarding accepted goals of scientific work and how to act towards achieving them. Although these desiderata are often implicit, they significantly impact researchers' processes of defining...

In the present paper we demonstrate the application of methods for cumulative evidence synthesis including Bayesian meta-analysis, and exploration of questionable research practices such as publication bias or p-hacking, in the sport and exercise sciences for the evaluation of experimental interventions. The use of such methods can aid in study pla...

It has recently been hypothesised that resistance training (RT) performed using a partial range of motion (ROM) at long muscle lengths (i.e., "lengthened partials") might optimise gains in muscle size. Improvements in muscle size however are typically small, even smaller in trained people due to the linear-logarithmic adaptation to RT over time, an...

Background/Objectives: Resistance training (RT) can improve the functional performance of older adults, maintaining independence and quality of life. It has been proposed that training interventions should implement exercises associated with the movements needed in everyday life. However, this strength training philosophy presents challenges, speci...

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine how mean muscle length during resistance training (RT) influences regional muscle hypertrophy. We included studies that manipulated muscle length through range of motion (ROM) or exercise selection and evaluated regional muscle hypertrophy (i.e., changes at proximal, mid-belly, and/...

In the present paper we demonstrate the application of methods for cumulative evidence synthesis including Bayesian meta-analysis, and exploration of questionable research practices such as publication bias or p-hacking, in the sport and exercise sciences for the evaluation of experimental interventions. The use of such methods can aid in study pla...

Jump height (JH) achieved in a countermovement jump (CMJ) has been suggested to allow for the monitoring of neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) and assessment of lower body power. Although force platforms (FP) are considered the gold standard for measuring CMJ height, they are expensive compared to mobile apps such as My Jump Lab (MJL). Therefore, this stu...

Previous research indicates the importance of the countermovement jump (CMJ) test to monitor lower-limb power and neuromuscular fatigue. While jump height (JH) can be measured using various equipment, this study compared the JH obtained from the Just Jump System (JJS), OptoJump and the My Jump Lab app against the Vald ForceDecks system using the im...

Background The proximity to failure in which sets are terminated has gained attention in the scientific literature as a potentially key resistance training variable. Multiple meta-analyses have directly (i.e., failure versus not to failure) or indirectly (e.g., velocity loss, alternative set structures) evaluated the effect of proximity to failure...

Most resistance training research focuses on inference from average intervention effects from observed group-level change scores (i.e., mean change of group A vs group B). However, many practitioners are more interested in training responses (i.e., causal effects of an intervention) on the individual level (i.e., causal effect of intervention A vs...

Blood lactate is routinely measured in endurance athletes to determine the physiological responses to exercise. The blood lactate profile allows the determination of thresholds that can be used to inform training and is often reported as the corresponding heart rate, speed, or power output. Wearable technology development has allowed blood lactate...

All areas of psychology deal with constructs in one way or another. The use of psychological constructs presents four distinct challenges that are central to address: describing, defining, deploying, and distinguishing constructs. Refining a psychological construct refers to an iterative process of dealing with these challenges.

Wheelchair rugby (WCR) is an indoor contact sport. The sport is commonly known for its paralympic discipline, WCR Fours. A more inclusive version of the sport, WCR Fives, was developed recently. Previously, it has been reported that sprint and repeated sprint (RS) ability are crucial for success in WCR. However, very little is known about the diffe...

This is a preprint of a chapter forthcoming in the following edited textbook: Eimear Dolan & James Steele (Eds.). Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Science: An Open Access Primer. Society for Transparency, Openness, and Replication in Kinesiology. This is the opening chapter of the textbook which introduces foundational philosophical concepts...

Background: In endurance cycling, both high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) have become popular training modalities due to their ability to elicit improvements in performance. Studies have attempted to ascertain which form of interval training might be more beneficial for maximising cycling performance as well...

This effect sizes and confidence intervals collaborative guide aims to provide students and early-career researchers with hands-on, step-by-step instructions for calculating effect sizes and confidence intervals for common statistical tests used in psychology, social sciences and behavioral sciences, particularly when original data are not availabl...

Introduction Several retrospective studies of strength sport athletes have reported strength adaptations over months to years; however, such adaptations are not linear. Methods We explored changes in strength over time in a large, retrospective sample of powerlifting (PL) athletes. Specifically, we examined the rate and magnitude of strength adapt...

Meta-analysis has become commonplace within sport and exercise science for synthesising and sum-marising empirical studies. However, most research in the field focuses upon mean effects, particularly the effects of interventions to improve outcomes such as fitness or performance. It is thought that individual responses to interventions vary conside...

Most resistance training research focuses on group-level outcomes (i.e., group A versus group B). However, many practitioners are more interested in training responses on the individual level (i.e., intervention A versus intervention B for individual X). In order to properly examine individual response variation, multiple confounding sources of var...

Background Individuals with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are burdened by long-lasting symptoms (e.g., dyspnea and fatigue) post-treatment. These symptoms often reduce physical activity levels and increase the risk of functional decline. Though we have previously proposed cluster-set resistance training to mitigate symptom burden in lung cance...

Extant consumer research interested in disruption and adaptation to routines undertheorizes the role of 'meanings' in adaptation processes, which are implicated as obstacles, or understood as adjustable to achieve adaptation. Practice theory foregrounds the dynamics of practices and their elements as shaping practice transition. From this, we explo...

The maximal number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of the one repetition maximum (1RM) [REPS ~ %1RM relationship] is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. The current REPS ~ %1RM relationship is based on few studies and has not incorporated uncertainty into estimations or accounted for between-indivi...

In this chapter we present an overview of periodisation introduceing and discussing its definition and historical development. We then consider the common argument that strength and hypertrophic adaptations are optimised through the application of periodisation, and provide alternative interpretations that we think likely reflect more parsimonious...

The actual capacity to perform tasks, and actual fatigue, are concepts that have been thought of as inherently linked. These considerations also extend to their phenomenology, meaning the perception(s) of capacity or fatigue. The phenomenology of capacity or fatigue thus may be capturing the same underlying latent construct. Further, it is speculat...

Surface EMG (sEMG) has been used to compare loading conditions during exercise. Studies often explore mean/median frequencies. This potentially misses more nuanced electrophysiological differences between exercise tasks. Therefore, wavelet-based analysis was used to evaluate electrophysiological characteristics in the sEMG signal of the quadriceps...

Background: In endurance cycling, both high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT) have become popular training modalities due to their ability to elicit improvements in performance. Studies have attempted to ascertain which form of interval training might be more beneficial for maximising cycling performance as well...

The maximal number of repetitions that can be completed at various percentages of the one repetition maximum (1RM) (REPS~%1RM relationship) is foundational knowledge in resistance exercise programming. The current REPS~%1RM relationship is based on few studies and has not incorporated uncertainty into estimations or accounted for between-individual...

For decades, researchers have observed that eccentric (ECC) muscle strength is greater than concentric (CON) muscle strength. However, knowledge of the ECC:CON strength ratio is incomplete and might inform resistance exercise prescriptions. Our purposes were to determine the magnitude of the ECC:CON ratio of human skeletal muscle in vivo and explor...

Background: Range of motion (ROM) during resistance training is of growing interest and is potentially used to elicit differing adaptations (e.g. muscle hypertrophy and muscular strength and power). To date, attempts at synthesising the data on ROM during resistance training have primarily focused on muscle hypertrophy in the lower body. Objective...

Current levels of inactivity suggest novel approaches are needed to engage children in physical activity (PA), and enjoyment is a strong motivator for children’s PA engagement. A physically active experience (PAE) was proposed as a way to use entertainment, education, (e)aesthetics and escapist methods to promote PA to children in a way that is imm...

'Effort' is a concept of interest in cognitive psychology and neuroscience where many theories include it as a postulate. Despite its intuitiveness it is difficult to define such that its operationalisation follows a logical derivation chain. Recently I have proposed conceptual definitions of both actual effort, and the perception of effort, as the...

The aim of the study was to investigate whether resistance-trained participants can accurately predict changes in barbell velocity, specifically in the deadlift exercise, without feedback from velocity based training (VBT) devices. Seventeen participants (16 male, 1 female; age = 24.7 ± 3.8) were randomized in a counterbalanced, crossover design tw...

The actual capacity to perform tasks, and actual fatigue, are concepts that have been thought of as inherently linked. These considerations also extend to their phenomenology, meaning the perception(s) of capacity or fatigue. The phenomenology of capacity or fatigue thus may be capturing the same underlying latent construct. Further, it is speculat...

Measurement of performance in sport has historically followed operationist tendencies and applications of Classical Test Theory (i.e., true score theory). However, while specific performance is often the focus, it is likely the underlying latent ability that gives rise to performance which is of greater importance particularly for those interested...

Introduction: Several retrospective studies of strength sport athletes have reported strength adaptations over months to years, however, such adaptations are not linear. Methods: We explored changes in strength over time in a large, retrospective sample of powerlifting (PL) athletes. Specifically, we examined the rate and magnitude of strength adap...

Background The perception of effort provides information on task difficulty and influences physical exercise regulation and human behavior. This perception differs from other-exercise related perceptions such as pain. There is no consensus on the role of group III/IV muscle afferents as a signal processed by the brain to generate the perception of...

The aim of the study was to investigate whether resistance-trained participants can accurately predict changes in barbell velocity, specifically in the deadlift exercise, without feedback from velocity based training (VBT) devices. Seventeen participants (16 male, 1 female; age = 24.7 ± 3.8) were randomized in a counterbalanced, crossover design tw...

Lower lumbar extension strength is associated with back pain and balance, and sufficient force production appears important for maintaining kinematics whilst walking and running. A reduction in lumbar extensor force through deconditioning or fatigue might increase the risk of back pain, falls, and injury. Unfortunately, studies investigating the ef...

Extended constructed response assessment methods such as the dissertation are common in higher education assessment and are typically afforded considerable weight in overall student assessment. Thus, quality assurance processes such as double marking are commonly implemented. However, the value of such processes has been questioned. Further, the me...

Background: Range of motion (ROM) during resistance training is of growing interest and is potentially used to elicit differing adaptations (e.g. muscle hypertrophy and muscular strength and power). To date, attempts at synthesising the data on ROM during resistance training have primarily focused on muscle hypertrophy in the lower body. Objective:...

Force production from the trunk flexors and lumbar extensors might be important for maintaining optimal kinematics during physical tasks such as running. This study measured isolated lumbar extension strength and trunk flexor endurance before and after simulating soccer. Reductions in force output between flexors and extensors were compared, alongs...

Purpose: To date no studies have compared resistance training loading strategies combined with dietary intervention for fat loss. Methods: Thus, we performed a randomised crossover design comparing four weeks of heavier- (HL; ~80% 1RM) and lighter-load (LL; ~60% 1RM) resistance training, combined with calorie restriction and dietary guidance, inclu...

Despite the multiple health benefits that result from engaging in physical activity, data suggest that children are moving less. Novel approaches to engaging children in physical activity are needed to address this public health concern. Recently, a new definition of physical activity was proposed that emphasizes, among other things, the fact that...

Background Traditionally, the loads in resistance training are prescribed as a percentage of the heaviest load that can be successfully lifted once (i.e., 1 Repetition Maximum [1RM]). An alternative approach is to allow trainees to self-select the training loads. The latter approach has benefits, such as allowing trainees to exercise according to t...

To date no studies have compared resistance training loading strategies combined with dietary intervention for fat loss. Thus, we performed a randomised crossover design comparing four weeks of heavier- (HL; ~80% 1RM) and lighter-load (LL; ~60% 1RM) resistance training, combined with calorie restriction and dietary guidance, including resistance tr...

What to expect from interventions in sport and exercise is very rarely a precise affair. Often the best we can do is make potential directional predictions due to some vague verbal theory regarding the proposed mechanism of action for the intervention. Rarely are we able to a priori deduce what to expect as a point or even interval prediction. This...

Public health guidelines for resistance training emphasize a minimal effective dose intending for individuals to engage in these behaviors long term. However, few studies have adequately examined the longitudinal time-course of strength adaptations to resistance training. Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the time-course of strength dev...

Background Symptom burden remains a critical concern for individuals with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) following the completion of treatment. The most common symptom clusters, dyspnea (shortness of breath) and fatigue, can contribute to physical decline, reductions in quality of life, and a higher risk of comorbidities and mortality. Dyspnea...

Importance: Strength training exercise is recommended for improving physical function in older adults. However, whether strength training (lifting and lowering weights under control) and power training (PT) (lifting weights fast and lowering under control) are associated with improved physical function in older adults is not clear. Objective: To...

Background: Since many people choose to perform resistance training unsupervised, and a lack of supervision within strength training is reported to result in inadequate workout quality, we aimed to compare outcomes for resistance training with and without supervision. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed for performance/fun...

We estimated the effectiveness of using velocity feedback to regulate resistance training load on changes in muscle strength, power, and linear sprint speed in apparently healthy participants. Academic and grey literature databases were systematically searched to identify randomised trials that compared a velocity-based training intervention to a '...

Background Prescribing repetitions relative to task failure is an emerging approach to resistance training. Under this approach, participants terminate the set based on their prediction of the remaining repetitions left to task failure. While this approach holds promise, an important step in its development is to determine how accurate participants...

Background Virtual personal training might represent an uncomplicated, accessible, and time-efficient approach to supervised strength training, particularly under government-imposed lockdown or closure of fitness facilities. However, there appears a dearth of literature evaluating the efficacy of virtual personal training. Methods The present proj...

Background: Traditionally, the loads in resistance training are prescribed as a percentage of the heaviest load that can be lifted once (i.e., 1 Repetitions Maximum [1RM]). An alternative approach is to allow trainees to self-select training loads. The latter approach has benefits, such as allowing trainees to exercise according to their preference...

BACKGROUND: The perception of effort (PE) provides information on task difficulty and influences physical exercise regulation and human behavior. This perception differs from other-exercise related perceptions such as pain. There is no consensus on the role of group III-IV muscle afferents as a signal processed by the brain to generate PE. OBJECT...

Background: Virtual personal training might represent an uncomplicated, accessible, and time-efficient approach to supervised strength training, particularly under government-imposed lockdown or closure of fitness facilities. However, there appears a dearth of literature evaluating the efficacy of virtual personal training. Methods: The present stu...

Consumer research is interested in the way consumers navigate consumption in the face of disruption, often using practice theory to focus on how practitioners creatively realign practice elements in order to carry on. Although recognising their significance, this research undertheorizes the significance, role and characteristics of 'meanings' in pr...

Aims This study considered the effects of supervised, low volume, high intensity of effort resistance training compared to continued routine care in persons with type II diabetes. Methods We utilized a randomized parallel-group time-series design. All participants completed baseline testing (T0) and then participated in an educational training int...

Purpose: To conduct a systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis of the current literature as to the effects of interval training (IT) vs moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) on measures of body composition, both on a whole-body and regional level. Methods: We searched English-language papers on PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, CINAHL, and spor...

The aim of this study was to compare two different maximal intensity exercise modality training protocols of similar durations on muscle strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, and lower limb composition in recreationally trained men. Twenty-five trained men (28.9 ± 5.6 years) were randomly divided into Cycle ergometer (4 sets of 30 seconds sprints) a...

Background: The body of resistance training literature appears heavily focused upon investigating efficacy of interventions by dint of most incorporating supervision (SUP). Authors have suggested that a lack of SUP within strength training results in inadequate workout quality and diminished results yet, since many people choose to perform resistan...

Background: Velocity-based training (VBT) may be an effective method for monitoring resistance training load because it accounts for daily changes in an individual’s physical performance capabilities. However, the current evidence comparing VBT to alternative resistance training methods is dominated by small individual studies reporting mixed resul...

Aims: The aims of this study were to consider the effects of supervised, low volume, high intensity of effort resistance training compared to continued routine care in persons with type II diabetes. Methods: This study utilized a randomized comparative interrupted time-series design. All participants completed baseline testing (T0) and then partici...

Background: Symptom burden remains a critical concern for individuals with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) following the completion of treatment. The most common symptom clusters, dyspnea (shortness of breath) and fatigue,can contribute to physical decline, reductions in quality of life, and a higher risk of comorbidities and mortality. Dyspnea...

The aim of this multi-experiment paper was to explore the concept of the minimum effective training dose (METD) required to increase 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) strength in powerlifting (PL) athletes. The METD refers to the least amount of training required to elicit meaningful increases in 1RM strength. A series of five studies utilising mixed meth...

Hypertrophy can be operationally defined as an increase in the axial cross-sectional area of a muscle fiber or whole muscle, and is due to increases in the size of pre-existing muscle fibers. Hypertrophy is a desired outcome in many sports. For some athletes, muscular bulk and, conceivably, the accompanying increase in strength/power, are desirable...

Despite widespread use, community-based physical activity prescription is controversial. Data limitations have resulted in a lack of clarity about what works, under what circumstances, and for whom, reflected in conservative policy recommendations. In this commentary we challenge a predominantly negative discourse, using contemporary research to hi...

Background: To support the strategy development for communication of the updated physical activity (PA) guidelines, the UK Chief Medical Officers' Expert Panel for Communication was created. Methods: To help inform this process, a rapid review was performed to identify and describe how other nations are communicating their PA guidelines and PA g...

There have been calls for more enjoyable Physical Activity (PA) interventions which focus on ensuring a positive affective response. This study explored how using a narrative, characters, and music in a video-led PA session might influence the sense of immersion and impact the affective response. One hundred and thirty-six participants (boys n = 65...

IntroductionUnderstanding the impact of lockdown upon resistance training (RT), and how people adapted their RT behaviours, has implications for strategies to maintain engagement in similar positive health behaviours. Further, doing so will provide a baseline for investigation of the long-term effects of these public health measures upon behaviours...

Resistance training (RT) is a fundamental component of exercise prescription aimed at improving overall health and function. RT techniques such as cluster set (CS) configurations, characterized by additional short intra-set or inter-repetition rest intervals, have been shown to maintain acute muscular force, velocity, and ‘power’ outputs across a R...