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Introduction
Contributions of gender socialization and social influence variables as they affect psychological and physical well-being including health behaviors
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September 1990 - present
Education
September 1985 - September 1990
Publications
Publications (105)
This study examined the unique contributions of masculinity and men's perceptions of the normativeness of men's and women's health behaviors in predicting men's self-reported health behaviors. One hundred and forty men aged 18-78 were recruited from 27 unmoderated and moderated Internet listservs of potential interest to men. They completed measure...
Research on men's help seeking yields strategies for enhancing men's use of mental and physical health resources. Analysis of the assumptions underlying existing theory and research also provides a context for evaluating the psychology of men and masculinity as an evolving area of social scientific inquiry. The authors identify several theoretical...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), and 5 studies that examined its psychometric properties. Factor analysis indicated 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and P...
Objective:
We sought to identify (a) the course of changes in smoking, alcohol and marijuana use, violence, and sexual behavior from early adolescence through young adulthood for males and females, (b) points of divergence and convergence for 5 health risk behaviors between males and females, and (c) whether the trajectories of change in health ri...
Path analyses indicated that the relationship between conformity to masculine norms (CMN) and attitudes toward mask-wearing to protect from COVID-19 was mediated by perceived benefits, perceived barriers, confidence in the scientific community, and empathy toward vulnerable persons, and that political ideology moderated the indirect effects from CM...
An abbreviated version of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, the CMNI-30, was developed with several strengths. However, its measurement invariance across men with different sexual orientations has not been examined in a U.S. sample, so it is unclear whether these different populations understand the items similarly. In addition, no studi...
Our response to the essays from Griffith (2022), Liang (2022), and Rogers (2022) addresses three themes we identified in the articles. First, feminist epistemology continues to play a critical role in the development of the study of men and masculinities. Second, structural change is essential to produce healthy masculinities, but we need to better...
We present a conceptual framework for relational interventions focused on helping boys and men navigate harmful socialization occurring in U.S. dominant culture, one which upholds a restrictive image of manhood that gives rise to health problems and social injustice. Drawing from relational-cultural theory, we frame the crises linked to hegemonic m...
To better understand men’s reluctance to seek help for mental health issues, we investigated the contributions of depression, stigma, and masculinity on help-seeking likelihood in a sample of depressed men. Two-hundred and fifty-eight men, who screened positive for depression on the PHQ-2, completed measures assessing self-stigma, self-reliance, em...
Objective
Our study conducted a preliminary evaluation of a peer-mentoring group program for college men (Freshmen League). Participants & Methods: We interviewed first-year men who participated in Freshmen League (n = 16) and others who did not (n = 10), asking them questions about authenticity, relationships, masculinity, and community. Using con...
The case of "Tommy" highlights both an underutilized methodology for increasing the field’s understanding of the therapeutic process in working with men, and the importance of addressing inflexibly enacted masculinity norms. My commentary focuses on detailing how the methodology helps those of us interested in understanding how masculine norms cont...
The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) has been an important tool in researching masculinity. With the original measure at 94 items (Mahalik et al., 2003), there have been several abbreviated forms developed from 11 to 55 items. However, in confirmatory factor analyses (CFA's) testing 13 common factors, bifactor, hierarchical, and unidi...
We investigated the role that fatherhood status and purpose play in predicting men’s health behaviors and social support by testing 2 models of mediation. A total of 211 men participated in the study, with 50.2% of participants being fathers with children 5 years of age or younger. Participants completed measures of purpose, cardiac-related health...
Female adolescents are at greater risk for depression than males, and highschool students in upper grades use alcohol at higher rates than students in lower grades. We hypothesized that attributes reflecting adaptive development addressed in the Positive Youth Development model would moderate gender differences in depressive symptoms, and grade dif...
In this study, we conducted interviews with 12 working-class men employed in industrial and manual labor to identify their constructions of help-seeking in response to feeling depressed or sad. The semistructured interview format explored participant men’s understanding and reactions to depression or sadness, their experiences of depression and rel...
This study examined whether sex-related health disparities that emerge during adolescence are linked to social norms and social connections within three primary social contexts: families, friendships, and schools. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 18,921), we assessed links between social norms and social con...
To understand influences on medical help seeking in men from traditionally masculine occupations, semistructured interviews with 12 men employed in manual and industrial labor were conducted. The semistructured interview format explored participant men’s understanding and experiences of annual exams and medical help seeking, their own and others’ r...
In this study, we examine men’s constructions of violence and their explanations of their own violent behavior. Interviews were conducted with 12 adult men, employed in industrial and manual labor, regarding their associations with violence, their reasons for engaging in violent behavior, and their reasons for not engaging in violent behavior. Util...
This study considered the unique and interactive roles of social norms from parents, friends, and schools in predicting developmental trajectories of adolescent drinking and intoxication.
Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, which followed adolescents (N=18,921) for thirteen years, we used discrete mixture modeling...
The authors point out an uncomfortable fact for the psychology of men and masculinity. Namely, that our research used to challenge essentialist thinking about traditional masculinity is vulnerable to reifying and essentializing masculinity by using scale scores to assess masculinity. Although I share the concerns, I reach different conclusions abou...
Four professors discuss the complexity and challenges of teaching the psychology of men. The authors present different assumptions and contexts for their course. Each professor describes developmental process of helping students deconstruct gender roles and personalize the psychology of men using an array of classroom practices ranging from traditi...
Teaching the psychology of men is an underdeveloped area of pedagogy in psychology. Very few psychology of men courses have been described in the literature. Four professors of the psychology of men describe their courses and discuss their teaching processes and techniques. Both graduate and undergraduate classes are described. Commonalities and di...
Purpose:
An early age of sexual initiation and sexual activity with multiple partners are risk factors for an array of detrimental outcomes. Drawing on social norms theory, this study assessed the role of subjective and descriptive social norms from parents, peers, and schoolmates on trajectories of sexual partner accumulation from early adolescen...
In this chapter, the authors intend their discussion of therapist self-disclosure to highlight the general guideline about the ethical use of therapist self-disclosure involved with the practice of feminist psychotherapy. First, the authors define therapist self-disclosure and discuss why it is a particularly salient technique of feminist therapy t...
This study drew upon the knowledge base of member practitioners of the American Psychological Association (APA) to develop a taxonomy of helpful and harmful practices for treatment with boys and men. Four hundred seventy-five APA-member practitioners solicited from practice-related divisions provided responses to 4 open-ended questions about helpfu...
Recent statistics suggest current and former United States military personnel are at a greater risk for suicide than ever before. Indeed, approximately 300 active-duty servicemen died by suicide in 2009, a population-adjusted death rate exceeding that of civilians (U.S. Department of Defense, 2010). Despite a growing body of literature highlighting...
Our study explored the relationship between feminist identity and women’s report of an ideal male partner’s conformity to masculine gender role norms. Heterosexual, mostly White, college women (N = 183) completed measures assessing feminist beliefs and the masculinity characteristics of an ideal male partner. Results indicated that feminist identit...
This study is an investigation of race-related stress as a predictor of psychological distress and self-esteem among Afro-Trinidadians, Indo-Trinidadians and Trinidadians of mixed ancestry. One hundred seventy-eight Trinidadian participants from a university sample completed the Index of Race-Related Stress (IRSS)-Brief version, the Symptom Checkli...
There were 161 young adult men who completed measures assessing their health beliefs, masculinity, perceptions of the normativeness of health behaviors in other men, and heart healthy behaviors (i.e., diet, exercise, alcohol abuse, tobacco use, and medical screenings). Men's heart-healthy behaviors were predicted by beliefs of benefits to healthy b...
The authors examined the contributions of the minority stress model, traditional masculine gender roles, and perceived social norms in accounting for gay men's use of alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and risky sexual practices. Three hundred fifteen gay men recruited from listserv communities completed measures assessing internalized homophobia, st...
Recent epidemiological statistics suggest approximately 250,000 people in the United States live with a spinal cord injury.
Men constitute roughly 82% of these individuals. Following spinal cord injury, men frequently experience significant changes
in their sexual functioning. As a result, men with spinal cord injuries are at an increased risk for...
The present article presents a biopsychosocial description of men's depression. The majority of the discussion focuses on the social context of the proposed biopsychosocial framework, and emphasizes research on social norms as a framework for understanding the effect of men's depression as nonnormative. The author suggests that any comprehensive di...
Although there are a variety of treatment options available to men with prostate cancer, little is known about factors that contribute to their posttreatment physical well-being. In the present investigation, the authors posit that (a) the type of treatment elected by men with prostate cancer is likely to influence their self-assessed physical well...
Men's enactment of traditional masculine norms may contribute to their adjustment to changes in sexual functioning following treatment for prostate cancer. In the present investigation, the authors test this hypothesis by examining the moderating role of sexual functioning on the relationship between men's adherence to masculine norms and their soc...
Prostate cancer is the most prevalent solid tumor malignancy and second-leading cause of death from cancer for American men. As a consequence of treatment-related side effects, men living with prostate cancer experience various obstacles to positive mental health. Unfortunately, relatively little is known about factors that promote or impede men's...
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 9(1) of
Psychology of Men & Masculinity (see record
2008-00646-005). In this article, the order of authorship was listed incorrectly, during the production of the article. The correct order of authorship follows: James R. Mahalik, Gordon Walker, and Micól Levi-Minzi] Approaching...
This investigation examined the moderating effects of physical health and scripts for masculinity (i.e., self-reliance and emotional control) on the relationship between powerful other people locus of control and mental health for 230 men treated for prostate cancer. Regression analyses indicated that physical health and masculine gender scripts mo...
This study was designed to investigate (1) men’s most likely and least likely actions in response to a vignette describing an episode of depression, (2) whether conformity to masculine norms related to the likelihood of men’s responses, and (3) which masculinity norms were associated with men’s responses. One hundred fifty-three mostly White and he...
Approaching men's health behaviors from a gender socialization framework, we hypothesized that (a) men's health behaviors would significantly relate to their conformity to traditional masculine norms, (b) these behaviors would significantly differ as a function of their nationality, and (c) masculinity and nationality would significantly interact t...
The authors examined how college men’s conformity to an array of masculinity norms varied as a function of their vocational interests to better understand the gendered context of men’s vocational development. Three hundred ten mostly Caucasian and heterosexual college men completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and their answer to th...
Data presented for 124 young adult Black men indicate that self-esteem was positively related to participants' Internalization racial identity attitudes, and negatively related to conformity to traditional masculine norms in the dominant culture in the United States. Psychological distress was positively related to Pre-Encounter and Immersion-Emers...
Cognitive therapists may be able to help fathers increase their involvement with their children by identifying and changing restrictive masculine schemas that interfere with men's parenting roles. In this paper, we (a) discuss the development of restrictive masculine schemas, (b) explain how these schemas may affect men's involvement in fathering r...
This chapter focuses on cognitive therapy for men. Cognitive therapy is a reality-testing and problem-solving model for psychotherapy in which the cognitive therapist often acts as a teacher or ally against illogical thinking, uses a broad range of directive techniques that modify a client's maladaptive schemata, and promotes a rational-empirical m...
The authors hypothesized that gay men's experiences of minority stress and their conformity to masculine norms would be associated with increased body image dissatisfaction and masculine body ideal distress. For this cross-sectional study, 357 gay males completed a Web-based survey, and 2 multiple regression analyses indicated that minority stress...
Male sexual aggression toward women is a serious social problem, particularly on college campuses. In this study, college men's sexually aggressive behavior and rape myth acceptance were examined using conformity to 11 masculine norms and 2 variables previously linked to sexual aggression: problem drinking and athletic involvement. Results indicate...
The authors hypothesized that masculine gender role stress would mediate the relationship between insecure attachment and controlling behaviors in a sample of men who batter. To examine this hypothesis,143 men who were court mandated to attend a batterers' intervention program in a northeastern state completed measures including the Controlling Beh...
Given that gender roles are increasingly viewed as salient in clinical work with men, this article describes a process of exploring masculine gender roles with male clients in therapy by using the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI). Specifically, this article (a) discusses how men's degree of conformity to masculine norms may be connect...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI), which was designed to assess womens conformity to an array of feminine norms found in the dominant culture in the United States. In addition, we present four studies in which the psychometric properties of the CFNI were examined. In Study 1, factor analysi...
This study investigated African self-consciousness and Black racial identity as predictors of psychological distress and self-esteem for Black men. One hundred thirty Black men from a college and community sample completed the African Self-Consciousness Scale, the Racial Identity Attitude Scale-B, the Symptom Checklist 90-Revised, and the Coopersmi...
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
This paper describes the construction of the Masculine Body Ideal Distress Scale (MBIDS) and an initial study examining its psychometric properties. For the study, 154 mostly Caucasian and heterosexual college males completed the MBIDS along with a measure of body dissatisfaction and a measure of conformity to masculinity norms. Results indicated t...
The authors have attempted to increase counselors' understanding of Vietnamese men in the U.S. by discussing masculine gender role socialization influences from Vietnamese culture, including the ritual of nhâu (a ritual of male bonding through binge drinking). The authors also provided a gendered context to the refugee experience, acculturation iss...
Men seek help less often than women and underutilize medical and mental health services. This article explores three bodies of theory and research related to men’s help seeking. Gender socialization theories, social constructionist theories, and social psychological theories are considered. Each theoretical paradigm is illustrated through case exam...
Men are a unique population to work with in psychotherapy, but what does research indicate about how masculinity relates to therapeutic issues? Summarizing research on masculinity's relationship to a range of presenting issues, this article organizes and discusses the findings according to masculinity "scripts" that clinicians are likely to recogni...
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), and 5 studies that examined its psychometric properties. Factor analysis indicated 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and P...
In this study, the authors hypothesized that men's own gender role strain and estimates of their fathers' gender role strain, would be associated with less attachment to, and more psychological separation from, their parents. Two hundred four college students completed the Gender-Role Conflict Scale, the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale, the Pare...
This paper explores African American masculinity and focuses on the complexities of African American men's gender-role socialization. Specifically, the paper addresses (a) the influence of slavery and colonialism, (b) African American males' worldview as shaped by experiences in the U.S., (c) adaptation to Eurocentric paradigms of masculinity, (d)...
In this study, the authors hypothesized that men's own gender role strain and estimates of their fathers' gender role strain, would be associated with less attachment to, and more psychological separation from, their parents. Two hundred four college students completed the Gender-Role Conflict Scale, the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale, the Pare...
This study explored how gender role stress variables are related to shame‐proneness, guilt‐proneness, and externalization. Undergraduates completed the Test of Self‐Conscious Affect and the Masculine or Feminine Gender Role Stress Scale, respectively. Canonical analyses revealed 3 significant roots for the male sample accounting for 50% of the tota...
We hypothesized that men's nationality and age group would affect (a) their level of gender role conflict and (b) the strength of the relationship between gender role conflict and the psychological health variables of social intimacy and self-esteem. Three hundred twenty-five men (97 college-aged American, 86 middle-aged American, 82 college-aged A...
The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric structure of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) in relation to the Rasch model. The CMNI was specifically constructed to measure a set of unidimensional constructs. As such, the items were intended to define a uniform spread of locations along each construct. The CMNI measure...
The authors examined the relationship between racial identity statuses and the use of psychological defenses in 80 African American college students who completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), Defense Mechanism Inventory (G. C. Gleser & D. Ihilevich, 1969), and the Defense Style Questionnaire—40 (G. An...
It was hypothesized that gender role conflict and stress would predict Catholic seminarian and college-aged men's religiosity and spiritual well-being. To test the hypotheses, 151 mostly Caucasian single men (74 Catholic seminarians, 77 Catholic undergraduate men) completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale, Gender Role Stress Scale, Intrinsic–Extrins...
The authors examined the relationship between racial identity statuses and the use of psychological defenses in 80 African American college students who completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), Defense Mechanism Inventory (G. C. Gleser & D. Ihilevich, 1969), and the Defense Style Questionnaire-40 (G. An...
The study evaluated whether women participating in a career group designed to increase career‐related self‐efficacy would make gains on career decision‐making self‐efficacy and vocational exploration and commitment compared with women in a control group. Thirty‐one women participated in a 6‐week treatment group, and 30 women participated in a no‐tr...
The relationship between gender role conflict factors and psychological distress was investigated in a sample of men seeking services from a university counseling center. Ninety-nine men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale and the Brief Symptom Inventory. Structural equation modeling indicated that gender role conflict predicted psychological...
The purpose of the study was to more fully understand how the messages men internalize related to gender role socialization are associated with depression. As a means of identifying specific masculinity messages associated with depression, 27 depressed and 27 nondepressed men, more than 90% of whom were Caucasian, were compared on their endorsement...
The purpose of the study was to examine men's gender role conflict in relation to self-rated behavior on the Interpersonal Circle. One hundred and one, mostly single and Caucasian, college-aged men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and the Checklist of Interpersonal Transactions-Revised (CLOIT-R). Canonical analyses indicated that two...
Psychologists will be better prepared to intervene effectively with male clients if they can assess how their male clients' experiences as men in society have contributed to their presenting problems. In this article, the author reviews how masculine gender role strain contributes to men's cognitive distortions and leads to, for example, aggressive...
Psychologists will be better prepared to intervene effectively with male clients if they can assess how their male clients' experiences as men in society have contributed to their presenting problems. In this article, the author reviews how masculine gender role strain contributes to men's cognitive distortions and leads to, for example, aggressive...
Although research on men's gender role conflict reveals that it adversely affects men's psychological health and interpersonal relationships, psychotherapists typically underuse knowledge of masculine gender roles in psychological assessment and treatment. Interpersonal psychotherapy is proposed as a useful framework for working with men whose rigi...
Although research on men's gender role conflict reveals that it adversely affects men's psychological health and interpersonal relationships, psychotherapists typically underuse knowledge of masculine gender roles in psychological assessment and treatment. Interpersonal psychotherapy is proposed as a useful framework for working with men whose rigi...
This study examined male therapists' gender role conflict, client sexual orientation, and client emotional expression as they interrelated with clinical judgments about male clients. Using a series of written clinical vignettes to manipulate the client variables of sexual orientation and emotional expression, 196 experienced male therapists complet...
The authors investigated 2 competing hypotheses related to therapists' worldview and therapists' race/ethnicity: (a) whether therapists of different racial/ethnic groups differed on worldview reflecting group membership, and (b) whether therapists were similar to each other on worldview reflecting membership in a “therapist culture.” Results indica...
This study examined male therapists' gender role conflict, client sexual orientation, and client emotional expression as they interrelated with clinical judgments about male clients. Using a series of written clinical vignettes to manipulate the client variables of sexual orientation and emotional expression, 196 experienced male therapists complet...
The authors hypothesized that men would report using psychological defenses to the degree they self-reported masculine gender role conflict. One hundred fifteen men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale, the Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Canonical correlations indicated that men experiencing greater rigidity a...
The authors hypothesized that men would report using psychological defenses to the degree they self-reported masculine gender role conflict. One hundred fifteen men completed the Gender Role Conflict Scale, the Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Canonical correlations indicated that men experiencing greater rigidity a...
The Feminist Self-Disclosure Inventory (FSDI) was developed to assess principles of therapist self-disclosure as described in the feminist therapy literature. This 18-item Likert-type scale was completed in a mailed survey by women psychotherapists (i.e., 41 self-identified feminist therapists, 34 psychoanalytic/dynamic, and 68 other therapists). R...
This study empirically addressed the debate between Holloway (1987) and Stoltenburg and Delworth (1988) concerning counselor development. Specifically, the study examined counselor trainee conceptual level, type of supervision environment, and trainee anxiety as predictors of counselor developmental level. Twenty-nine master's level trainees (5 men...
It was hypothesized that client vocational interest scores would predict client reactions to counselor intentions in Hill and O'Grady's (1985) process model. Twenty‐four volunteer undergraduate clients (17 women, 7 men) assigned to counseling treatment with 24 doctoral students (14 women, 10 men), reviewed 3 videotaped sessions recording intentions...
This study examined men's gender role factors (i.e., gender role orientation and gender role conflict) as they contribute to the formation of either traditional, participant, or rolesharing family roles in men. Responses from 71 married, mostly Caucasian, dual-career family men on measures of gender role orientation, gender role conflict, and measu...
We hypothesized that men's gender role conflict would predict attitudes towards psychological help-seeking after viewing counseling that focused on either client feelings or client cognitions. The sample was made up of 164 male undergraduates: 115 White, 13 African-American, 13 Hispanic, 18 Asian, 2 Portuguese, and 3 of unspecified ethnicity. Parti...
This study examined the relationships among parental attachment, sexual self-disclosure to parents, and dysfunctional cognitions in a sample of 113 gay and lesbian adults. The results of canonical analysis revealed that characteristics of secure attachment to mother and father were positively associated with disclosure to parents and length of time...
This study examined the relationship among parental attachment, sexual self-disclosure to parents, and dysfunctional cognitions in a sample of 113 gay and lesbian adults. The results of canonical analysis revealed that characteristics of secure attachment to mother and father were positively associated with disclosure to parents and length of time...
Examining Kluckhohn's Value-Orientation Model applied to counseling practitioners, the author hypothesized that practitioners would (a) endorse alternatives within value-orientations according to their counseling orientation, and (b) as a group, endorse certain alternatives within value-orientations over others. One hundred and nineteen practitione...
This study evaluated the relationship between women's perceptions of men's gender role conflict and women's relationship satisfaction and well-being. One hundred seventy-five women reported perceptions of their most recent or current male romantic partner's gender role conflict and rated their own levels of somatization, depression, anxiety, self-e...
This study examined gender role conflict in college-aged and middle-aged men. 88 college-aged men and 89 middle-aged men completed 5 measures that assess gender role conflict and psychological well-being. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that, compared with college-aged men, middle-aged men were less conflicted about success, pow...
This study examined gender role conflict in college-aged and middle-aged men. Eighty-eight college-aged men and 89 middle-aged men completed 5 measures that assess gender role conflict and psychological well-being. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that, compared with college-aged men, middle-aged men were less conflicted about su...
Examines (1) the psychometric properties of the Client Resistance Scale (CRS) and (2) how client resistance manifests as a function of client, therapist, and therapist response mode. The CRS is composed of 5 subscales that are based on R. R. Greenson's (1967) formulation of client resistance (i.e., Opposing Expression of Painful Affect, Opposing Re...
Examines (1) the psychometric properties of the Client Resistance Scale (CRS) and (2) how client resistance manifests as a function of client, therapist, and therapist response mode. The CRS is composed of 5 subscales that are based on R. R. Greenson's (1967) formulation of client resistance (i.e., Opposing Expression of Painful Affect, Opposing Re...
Using Kiesler and Goldston's (1988) procedures for rating interpersonal therapy behavior on the Checklist of Psychotherapy Transactions-Revised (CLOPT-R), 25 untrained, clinically inexperienced raters judged therapist and client interpersonal behavior in 127 sessions of brief psychotherapy. Rater bias was examined by relating several individual dif...
Rated the interpersonal behavior of 8 therapists (aged 34–78 yrs) and 24 clients (aged 19–50 yrs) in 127 sessions of brief psychotherapy, using D. J. Kiesler's (1988) Checklist of Psychotherapy Transactions—Revised. Three hypotheses advanced by interpersonal theory about complementarity between therapist and client were tested. Results indicate tha...
