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Publications (98)
The objective of this study was to examine the effect of stage of lactation (early, mid, and late) and proportion of pasture in the cow's diet (high: GRS, medium: PMR, and no: TMR) on the composition and quality of Cheddar cheese. Triplicate trials were carried out in each stage of lactation, and milk protein and fat contents were standardized for...
Background: Evidence suggests cheese has a favourable or neutral effect on cardiometabolic health, compared to butter. To date, studies have only considered the cheese matrix in its unmelted form, while the effect of melted cheese remains unknown. Objective: To test the effect of 6-week daily consumption of ∼40 g dairy fat, eaten in either as unmel...
Season and location have previously been shown to be associated with differences in the microbiota of raw milk, especially in milk from pasture-based systems. Here, we further advance research in this area by examining differences in the raw milk microbiota from several locations across Ireland over 12 months, and by investigating microbiota associ...
Cleaning‐in‐place (CIP) is the most commonly used cleaning and sanitation system for processing lines, equipment, and storage facilities such as milk silos in the global dairy processing industry. CIP employs thermal treatments and nonbiodegradable chemicals (acids and alkalis), requiring appropriate neutralization before disposal, resulting in sus...
Variability in milk composition and physicochemical properties impact both manufacturing process performance and the end-use functionality of cheese. Such variability may be attributed to seasonal calving patterns, production systems, breed, weather patterns, and feed type and significantly impacts concentrations of macro-and microconstituents and...
The effect of β-casein reduction (LB) and high heat treatment (HHT, 120 °C ×15 s) of whey protein-reduced milk on the ripening properties of Emmental cheese was investigated. Cheeses were manufactured from low-heat skim milk powder (LH), micellar casein concentrate powder (MCC) and β-casein reduced MCC powder (LB- or HHT LB) respectively, then ripe...
Salt migration or heterogeneity within cheese blocks influences ripening and quality parameters. A finite element model, based on the unidirectional mass transfer and Fick's second law, was employed to study the influence of changing brining conditions on the diffusion coefficients of salt through rennet-induced micellar casein concentrate model sy...
This study investigated the rheological, microstructural and syneretic properties of rennet gels as influenced by the addition of soy soluble polysaccharides (2.5 g/kg, 5 g/kg) or konjac glucomannan (0.2 g/kg, 0.4 g/kg) to skim milk. The addition of all polysaccharides enhanced rennet coagulation properties, by reducing rennet coagulation time (RCT...
This study investigated the effect of chymosin‐induced hydrolysis of αS1‐casein on the tribological behaviour of cheese. Residual chymosin activity was inhibited by adding a chymosin inhibitor (i.e. pepstatin A) to the curd–whey mixture during cheese manufacture. A significant difference was observed in the static and kinetic regimes of the extende...
Carotenoids are isoprenoids widely distributed in foods that have been always part of the diet of humans. Unlike the other so-called food bioactives, some carotenoids can be converted into retinoids exhibiting vitamin A activity, which is essential for humans. Furthermore, they are much more versatile as they are relevant in foods not only as sourc...
Removal of 40–95% of native serum proteins from skimmed milk may be achieved by microfiltration (MF) to generate micellar casein concentrate (MCC). The MCC may be used to prepare cheese milk of the target composition and resultant cheeses of the desired quality and functionality. Herein, factors affecting the composition of MCC, different methods t...
Considering the turnover of global cheese industry and while colored cheese is a subset of this, the issue of producing colored cheese without compromising the quality and economic value of the whey stream is a significant one. In this work, the potential of two pilot-scale processes—pulsed electric field (PEF) and high-pressure processing (HPP)—to...
Micellar casein concentrate (MCC) of high casein content, (93.64 % of total protein), was produced by microfiltration of pasteurised skim milk. Cheesemilk of typical (1×) or high (1.5×) casein content were formulated from MCC which received either: no further heat treatment; pasteurisation (72 °C×15 s) or high heat treatment (90 °C×15 s), prior to...
To study the effect of removing β-casein of cheesemilk on cheese manufacture, cheesemilk was formulated from low heat skim milk powder (LH CM), micellar casein concentrate with 1.83% β-casein reduction (MCC CM) and β-casein-reduced micellar casein concentrate with 4.25% β-casein reduction (LB CM) or high heat treatment (HHT; 120 °C, 15 s) LB CM to...
In this study, application of an electrical field to facilitate the migration of norbixin molecules through rennet-induced micellar casein concentrate (MCC) and agar gels was evaluated. To determine the effect of selected parameters on norbixin penetration through the renneted casein gels, MCC, as a curd-like structure, was used to simplify the stu...
This study explores the experiences of a cohort of young, educated, internationally mobile Chinese consumers with cheese and other dairy products, and how these experiences shape their behavior toward cheese products. In total, 41 Chinese students studying at an Irish university participated in 5 focus groups (n = 41, n = 7–10). Thematic analysis i...
Pink discoloration defects in cheese manifests as the appearance of pink patches within cheese blocks and has recently been associated with Thermus thermophilus. Swiss-type cheeses were prepared at pilot scale using thermophilic starter cultures, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, and one of Thermus thermophilus HB27, Thermus scotoductus SE1 or Ther...
The focus of the global cheese industry on accessing new markets for cheese is currently driving a greater need for innovation in cheese products. Research to date suggests that, for example, East Asian consumers prefer cheeses that have a soft texture, with mild and milky flavors. Strategies for achieving such cheese characteristics are reviewed i...
Health guidelines recommend limiting saturated fat consumption due to adverse associations with low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, a marker for cardiovascular disease risk. Recently, this advice is being questioned, since it does not account for the diversity of fatty acids present in different foods and may be overly simplistic. Current research...
A new fast and reliable reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatographic method is proposed for quantifying all the major casein fractions during cheese proteolysis as an alternative to more complex methodologies. Excellent separation of the caseins, para‐κ‐casein (ρ‐κ‐CN), αs1‐casein (αs1‐CN), αs1‐I‐casein (αs1‐I‐CN), αs2‐casein (αs2‐CN), an...
The objective of this study was to identify the carotenoids imparting the orange colour to the rind, and pale yellow color to the core, of selected smear-ripened cheeses. The cheeses investigated were Charloe, Ashbrook, Taleggio, and Limburger, and were sourced from artisanal markets. Samples of the rind and core were extracted using non-polar solv...
Gas blowing results in holes, cracks, slits, or fissures in cheeses. The size and nature of these openings are influenced by the volume and type of gas produced (CO2 or H2; H2 has particularly low solubility in cheese), cheese texture characteristics, and the effect of temperature on gas solubility, and pressure within the curd. Measures to avoid e...
Nisin is a bacteriocin that is globally employed as a biopreservative in food systems to control gram-positive, and some gram-negative, bacteria. Here we tested the bioactivity of nisin A-producing Lactococcus lactis NZ9700 and producers of bioengineered variants thereof against representatives of the gram-negative genus Thermus, which has been ass...
Microfiltration at 0.10 μm removed ～70.29% of serum proteins from milk and the resultant micellar casein concentrates (MCC) were subjected to no heat treatment (control), pasteurisation (72 °C × 15 s) and high heat treatment (HHT; 90 °C × 15s) before formulation of cheese milk for Cheddar cheese manufacture. MCC showed good heat stability due to lo...
A cascade membrane filtration process including microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO) was used to fractionate skim milk into different streams. Significant quantities of lactose and minerals were removed to permeate after MF at 0.14 μm. Cheese milk, of similar casein content to the raw milk, was standardised simultaneo...
The solubility of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the moisture and protein components of cheese matrices and the influence of changing pH, salt and temperature levels remains unclear. In this study, model casein matrices were prepared, by renneting of micellar casein concentrate (MCC), with modulation of salt and pH levels by adding salt and glucono delta-...
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of adding different levels of a thermoresistant protease produced by a Pseudomonas fluorescens strain to milk on the manufacture and quality of Cheddar cheese. Fresh raw milk was collected, standardized, and pasteurized at 72°C for 15 s, and the enzyme was added to give a protease activity o...
Colored Cheddar cheeses are prepared by adding an aqueous annatto extract (norbixin) to cheese milk; however, a considerable proportion (∼20%) of such colorant is transferred to whey, which can limit the end use applications of whey products. Different geographical regions have adopted various strategies for handling whey derived from colored chees...
Changes in the microstructure of semi-hard cheeses were observed in situ under tensile deformation by placing a microtensile stage directly under a confocal scanning laser microscope, and recording force/displacement data simultaneously. On tensile deformation, detachment of fat globules and their subsequent release from the cheese matrix were obse...
Background
The rate or extent of whey expulsion or syneresis from cheese curds during stirring in-vat determines curd moisture levels, which subsequently influences cheese moisture content. The outward migration of whey depends on curd contraction and on the structure of the pores permitting whey movement. Curd syneretic properties are one of the l...
The individual roles of hydrolysis of αS1- and β-caseins, and calcium solubilization on the fracture properties of semi-hard cheeses, such as Maasdam and other eye-type cheeses, remain unclear. In this study, the hydrolysis patterns of casein were selectively altered by adding a chymosin inhibitor to the curd/whey mixture during cheese manufacture,...
The untargeted metabolic profiles of ripened Maasdam cheese samples prepared from milk derived from three herd groups, fed: (1) indoors on total mixed ration (TMR), or outdoors on (2) grass only pasture (GRA) or (3) grass and white clover pasture (CLO) were studied using high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), high resolution magic ang...
Maasdam cheese was manufactured from standardized milk derived from each of three feeding systems: grass (GRA), grass and clover pasture (CLO), and indoor feeding of total mixed ration (TMR). Pasture‐derived cheeses had significantly lower L* (whiteness) and higher b* values (yellowness) compared to TMR‐derived cheeses. Acetate levels were signific...
The effects of the independent variables protein concentration (4–6%), coagulum cut size (6–18 mm ³ ), and coagulation temperature (28–36°C) on curd moisture loss during in-vat stirring were investigated using response surface methodology. Milk (14 kg) in a cheese vat was rennet coagulated, cut, and stirred as per semihard cheesemaking conditions....
This study characterized the coagulation properties and defined the cutting window (CW; time between storage modulus values of 35 and 70 Pa) using rheometry for milk standardized to 4, 5, or 6% protein and set at 28, 32, or 36°C. Milks were standardized to a protein-to-fat ratio of approximately 1 by blending ultrafiltration retentate, skim milk, a...
This study investigated the effects of pasture versus indoor total mixed ration (TMR) feeding systems on milk and milk solids production, the chemical composition, quality characteristics and sensory properties of raw milk, sweet cream butter and full fat cheddar cheese. The experiment had three treatments. Group 1 was housed indoors and fed a TMR...
The non-starter microbiota of Cheddar cheese mostly comprises mesophilic lactobacilli, such as Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Lactobacillus plantarum. These bacteria are recognized for their potential to improve Cheddar cheese flavor when used as adjunct cultures. In this study, three strains of L. paraca...
The microbiota of cheese plays a key role in determining its organoleptic and other physico-chemical properties. It is essential to understand the various contributions, positive or negative, of these microbial components in order to promote the growth of desirable taxa and, thus, characteristics. The recent application of high throughput DNA seque...
This study investigated the effect of centrifugation (9,000 × g, 50°C, flow rate = 1,000 L/h), as well as the incorporation of high-heat-treated (HHT) centrifugate into cheese milk on the composition, texture, and ripening characteristics of Maasdam cheese. Neither centrifugation nor incorporation of HHT centrifugate into cheese milk had a pronounc...
Centrifugation is a common milk pretreatment method for removal of Clostridium spores which, on germination, can produce high levels of butyric acid and gas, resulting in rancid, gassy cheese. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of centrifugation of milk, as well as incorporation of high heat-treated centrifugate into cheese milk, on...
Fermented foods, in particular, surface-ripened cheese, represent a model to explain the metabolic interactions which regulate microbial succession in complex environments. This study explains the role of individual species in a heterogeneous microbial environment, i.e., the exterior of surface-ripened cheese. Through whole-metagenome shotgun seque...
This study compared the in-vat moisture loss kinetics under fixed cheesemaking conditions during 75 min of stirring of curds prepared from protein-standardised milks produced from indoor cows fed total mixed ration (TMR), or outdoor cows fed grass only (GRA) or grass mixed with clover (CLO). Relative curd moisture as a function of time was fitted t...
The quality and commercial value of cheese are primarily determined by its physico-chemical properties (e.g., melt, stretch, flow, and color), specific sensory attributes (e.g., flavor, texture, and mouthfeel), usage characteristics (e.g., convenience), and nutritional properties (e.g., nutrient profile, bioavailability, and digestibility). Many of...
The effect of buttermilk powder addition post-curd formation or buttermilk addition to cheese milk on total and individual phospholipid content, chemical composition, enzyme activity, microbial populations and microstructure within Cheddar-style cheese was investigated. Buttermilk or buttermilk powder addition resulted in significant increases in t...
The influence of buttermilk or buttermilk powder addition to cheese milk or cheese curds respectively on cheese functional properties, free fatty acid profiles and subsequent volatile and sensory characteristics was investigated. Buttermilk addition to cheese milk resulted in a softer cheese compared to other cheeses, with a significantly reduced f...
This study investigated the differential effect of salt concentration in the outside and inside layers of brine salted cheeses on viability, culturability and enzyme activity of starter bacteria. The high-salt environment of the outside layer caused a sharp decrease in L. helveticus viability as measured by traditional plate counts. Remarkably, thi...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of pasture-based versus indoor total mixed ration (TMR) feeding systems on the chemical composition, quality characteristics, and sensory properties of full fat Cheddar cheeses. Fifty-four multiparous and primiparous Friesian cows were divided into 3 groups (n = 18) for an entire lactation. G...
The quality of any type of cheese is without doubt influenced by the quality of the milk from which it is made, from microbiological, biochemical, sensory, and many other perspectives. Raw milk is an inherently variable starting point for cheese manufacture, with its composition, for example, being influenced by factors, such as stage of lactation,...
The strains Staphylococcus saprophyticus DPC5671 and Corynebacterium casei DPC5298 were applied in combination with Debaryomyces hansenii DPC6258 to the surface of young Cheddar cheese curd to obtain two different smear-ripened cheeses. A surface microbiota developed over the incubation period, comprising of both yeast and bacteria; pulsed field ge...
The effect of varying cook temperature (40 or 50 °C) and salting method (dry or brine salting) on bacterial viability, enzymatic activity and chemical composition in cheeses made using Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus helveticus were investigated. Dry salting resulted in decreased cell viability of L. helveticus, increased lactate dehyd...
Liposome-encapsulated ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) was incorporated into a model miniature Gouda-type cheese (20 g) in order to assess its effect on rennet gelation, starter viability, pH, and moisture content. EDTA was encapsulated within 2 different food-grade proliposome preparations, Pro-Lipo Duo and Pro-Lipo C (50% and 40% unsaturate...
Pink discoloration in cheese is a defect affecting many cheeses throughout the world, leading to significant financial loss for the dairy industry. Despite decades of research, the cause of this defect has remained elusive. The advent of high-throughput, next-generation sequencing has revolutionized the field of food microbiology and, with respect...
The present study investigated the ability of spray dried single layer (SL) and layer-by-layer (LBL) high total solid emulsions with carbohydrate (trehalose) and non-carbohydrate (WPI) solids to stabilize carotenoids upon storage at 35°C, 50°C, and 65°C. Carotenoid loss followed first order loss kinetics, and increased with increasing storage tempe...
Nonstarter lactic acid bacteria are commonly implicated in undesirable gas formation in several varieties, including Cheddar, Dutch-, and Swiss-type cheeses, primarily due to their ability to ferment a wide variety of substrates. This effect can be magnified due to factors that detrimentally affect the composition or activity of starter bacteria, r...
The aim of this study was to employ high-throughput DNA sequencing to assess the incidence of bacteria with biogenic amine (BA; histamine and tyramine) producing potential from among 10 different cheeses varieties. To facilitate this, a diagnostic approach using degenerate PCR primer pairs that were previously designed to amplify segments of the hi...
Exopolysaccharide-producing Lactobacillus mucosae DPC 6426 was previously shown to have promising hy-pocholesterolemic activity in the atherosclerosis-prone apolipoprotein-E-deficient (apoE −/−) murine model. The aim of this study was to investigate the suitabil-ity of reduced-fat Cheddar and Swiss-type cheeses as functional (carrier) foods for del...
Despite considerable advances in confocal microscopy and related technologies, advanced light microscopy techniques have been rarely used to study the microstructure of cheese matrices. Here, we demonstrate the potential of advanced microscopic techniques, namely fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM), confocal Raman spectroscopy and non-linear micro...
Calcium lactate crystals inside Cheddar cheese matrix, perspective projection of 3D data. (Red) two-photon fluorescence of protein matrix stained with Nile blue; (green) two-photon fluorescence of fat stained with Nile blue; (grey) SHG signal from the calcium lactate crystals (purple arrows). Approximate dimensions of the volume: 150 × 150 × 24 μm
Background: Biogenic amines are nitrogenous compounds with biological activity produced by a variety of lactic acid bacteria. Biogenic amines, such as histamine and tyramine, are commonly found in fermented food products. In cheese, high concentrations can result in adverse health effects for the consumer. Objectives: The aim of this study was to s...
We sought to determine if the time, within a production day, that a cheese is manufactured has an influence on the microbial community present within that cheese. To facilitate this, 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing was used to elucidate the microbial community dynamics of brine salted Continental-type cheese in cheeses produced early and late in the p...
Cheese, a product of microbial fermentation may be defined as a protein matrix entrapping fat, moisture, minerals and solutes as well as dispersed bacterial colonies. The growth and physiology of bacterial cells in these colonies may be influenced by the microenvironment around the colony, or alternatively the cells within the colony may modify the...
The growth, location, and distribution of bacterial colonies in dairy products are important factors for the ripening and flavor development of cheeses, yogurts, and soured creams. Starter, non-starter, spoilage, and pathogenic bacteria all become entrapped in the developing casein matrix of dairy foods. In order to visualize these bacterial coloni...
This review considers the relationship between cheese manufacture process parameters including high heat and high pressure processes and protein standardisation techniques on the resultant cheese microstructure, microbial activity within the cheese matrix and the interactions between the cheese matrix and the entrapped bacteria during ripening. Par...
The pH of cheese affects the texture of curd directly by influencing the solubility of the caseins; all else
being equal, high pH cheeses are softer than more acid cheeses. pH also affects texture and flavour
indirectly by affecting the activity of enzymes important to ripening and, in the case of the coagulant,
the retention of enzyme in the curd...
Cheese is a versatile nutrient-dense dairy product and it is of high importance to fully characterise its properties, e.g. texture and flavour, which contribute to the quality of this dairy food. These properties are substantially affected by the microstructure. This paper reviews recent developments in the study of microstructure of cheeses, using...
Abolition of EU milk quotas in 2015 is projected to result in a 2.75 billion litre increase in Irish milk production by 2020. Although cheese offers vital market opportunities for this increased milk production, traditional cheese markets such as Cheddar, are predicted to grow more slowly than for other semi-soft and semi-hard cheese types. Innovat...
The microbial profile of cheese is a primary determinant of cheese quality. Microorganisms can contribute to aroma and taste defects, form biogenic amines, cause gas and secondary fermentation defects, and can contribute to cheese pinking and mineral deposition issues. These defects may be as a result of seasonality and the variability in the compo...
Development of a pink color defect is an intermittent but persistent defect in a wide range of ripened cheese varieties (Swiss, Cheddar, Grana, and Italian types) which may or may not contain an added colorant, e.g., annatto. Pink discoloration results in downgrading or rejection of a product with consequential economic loss to producers. Pink disc...
Gas blowing results in holes, cracks, slits, or fissures in cheeses. The size and nature of these openings are influenced by the volume and type of gas produced (CO2 or H2; H2 has particularly low solubility in cheese), cheese texture characteristics, and the effect of temperature on gas solubility and pressure within the curd. Measures to avoid ea...
Factors associated with split and secondary fermentation defects in Swiss-type cheeses include seasonality of milk supply, interactions between lactic and propionic acid bacteria and variability in cheese composition. Swiss-type cheeses produced from a seasonal milk supply were sampled on two days per month of the production year (season), at three...
Split and secondary fermentation defects in Swiss-type cheese varieties are manifested as undesirable slits or cracks that may lead to downgrading of the cheese. Split defect is associated with an excessive production of gas or an unsuitable cheese body that cannot accommodate gas produced, or a combination of both factors. Secondary fermentation i...
Semi-hard cheeses were manufactured from caprine milk and bovine milk mixed in ratios of 100:0; 75:25; 50:50; 25:75; 0:100 (caprine:bovine) and ripened at 12 °C for 150 d. Substitution of up to 75% bovine for caprine milks had no significant effect on levels of cheese protein, moisture-in-non-fat substances, salt, pH, whiteness, total or individual...
The influence of varying process (curd washing, drain pH, dry or brine salting) and ripening (at 9 or 12°C without a hot room step) parameters on manufacture and on biochemical changes during ripening of semi-hard cheeses with propionic acid bacteria (PAB) was studied. Levels of secondary proteolysis were significantly higher and viable thermophili...
Classically, very few pre-treatments are applied to milk for cheese-making, with some cheese varieties simply made from raw whole milk, but most made from pasteurised milk of which the composition (e.g., fat:protein ratio) may have been standardized. However, there has been consistent interest in more novel and sophisticated strategies for pre-trea...
Novel semi-hard cheeses were manufactured using Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus helveticus as starter cultures and with cook temperatures of 47, 50 or 53 °C. There was a progressive and significant degradation of both αs1- and β-caseins during ripening of all cheeses. Increasing cook temperature significantly reduced degradation of αs1...
Semi-hard cheeses were manufactured using Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus helveticus cultures and their ripening was characterised. During cheese manufacture, curds were cooked to a maximum temperature of 47, 50 or 53°C, pre-pressed under whey at pH 6.15, moulded, pressed and brined. Increased cook temperature resulted in increased man...
A study was undertaken to determine the effects of high pressure (HP) treatment on the rheological and cooking properties and appearance of reduced-fat Mozzarella cheese (RFMC). RFMC of approx. 10.7% fat was manufactured at pilot-scale. A portion of the cheeses (HP) were tempered at 21 °C for 16 h on day 1, high pressure-treated at 400 MPa for 5 mi...
Reduced-fat low-moisture Mozzarella cheeses (∼ 10%, w/w, fat) were made in triplicate using one of the following coagulants: fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC), Rhizomucor miehei proteinase (RMP) or Rhizomucor pusillus proteinase (RPP). Coagulants were added to the cheese milk at levels, which gave a curd firmness of 60 Pa in 45 min at 36°C. Base...
Reduced-fat Mozzarella cheeses were made using starter culture (control, CL), lactic acid (directly acidified, DA) or a combination of starter culture and lactic acid (DAS1 and DAS2) to reduce the pH during manufacture. The resultant cheeses differed in pH at 5 d and calcium content (mg g−1 protein): CL, 5.42 and 28.58; DA, 5.89 and 19.38; DAS1, 5....
Relationships between odour and flavour attributes of six blue-type cheeses and their volatile compounds, free amino acids (FAA), free fatty acids (FFA) and gross compositional constituents were determined. Relationships were also determined between texture attributes and gross compositional constituents. Fifteen assessors described the odour, flav...
The effects of manufacturing steps, including rate of acidification in the vat, hot room step, curd wash and ripening temperature, on the sensory character of Swiss-type and Swiss–Cheddar hybrid-type cheeses were determined. In addition, relationships were determined between sensory attributes of cheeses and their gross compositional constituents a...
Relationships between individual flavour attributes of eight hard-type cheeses and their volatile compounds, free amino acids (FAA), free fatty acids (FFA) and gross compositional constituents were determined. Relationships were also determined between individual texture attributes and gross compositional constituents. A trained panel of 15 assesso...
Smear-ripened cheese varieties are characterised by the growth of a smear culture, containing predominantly Brevibacterium linens, on the cheese surface during ripening. In such cheese, considerable zonal differences in biochemistry of ripening exist, due to moisture loss from, and growth and metabolic activity of smear microflora at, the cheese su...
Relationships between the odour, flavour and texture sensory attributes and the neutral volatile composition and gross composition of ten varieties of cheese were determined. Sensory evaluation was carried out by fifteen trained assessors who used a vocabulary of nine odour, twenty-one flavour and ten texture terms. Volatile compounds were isolated...
