Indu B Ahluwalia

• MPH, PhD
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Introduction: This study examined reasons why people planned to reduce or stop tobacco consumption and their relationship with MPOWER scores, adjusting for sociodemographic, cultural, and economic factors. Methods: Data used were Euromonitor International's Voice of the Consumer: Nicotine Survey 2019-2020, World Bank's country income and WHO's M...

Background The tobacco product landscape continues to change. No recent data for electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use have been reported for multiple countries based on nationally representative surveys. We examined prevalence of e-cigarette use and variations by sociodemographic characteristics in 14 countries using Global Adult Tobacco Survey (...

Purpose and objectives: A process evaluation, the Uttarakhand Tobacco Free Initiative (UTFI), was conducted in 49 public high schools and colleges in the state of Uttarakhand, India, to measure program implementation, provide feedback to school administrators, and identify barriers to tobacco control. Intervention approach: UTFI aims to 1) raise...

Background Five data-to-action workshops were conducted during 2016–2019 with participants from 38 countries. The purpose of the workshops is to use data to inform and disseminate tobacco prevention and control strategies. We evaluated the workshops using the Kirkpatrick Model for evaluation of trainings. Methods We evaluated the data-to-action wo...

Introduction: About 80% of the 1.1 billion people who smoke tobacco worldwide reside in low- and middle-income countries. Evidence-based approaches to promote cessation include brief advice from health professionals and referrals through quitlines. This study assesses cessation behaviors and the use of cessation services in the past 12 months amon...

Background: We revisited the association between progress in MPOWER implementation from 2008 to 2016 and smoking prevalence from 2009 to 2017 and offered an in-depth understanding of differential outcomes for various country-groups. Methods: We used data from six rounds of the WHO Reports on the Global Tobacco Epidemic and calculated a composite...

Introduction In 2003, the Philippines implemented legislation that prohibited the sale of tobacco products to youth, placed text warning labels on tobacco products, and prohibited tobacco smoking in public places. This study assessed if this legislation was associated with reduced cigarette smoking among youth. Methods Data came from the 2000–2015...

Objectives: We sought to examine postpartum contraceptive use among women who reported physical intimate partner violence (IPV) during or within 12 months before pregnancy compared with women who did not report physical IPV and to identify factors associated with nonuse of contraception among women who reported physical IPV. Methods: Data were o...

Each year, tobacco use is responsible for approximately 8 million deaths worldwide, including 7 million deaths among persons who use tobacco and 1.2 million deaths among nonsmokers exposed to secondhand smoke (SHS) (1). Approximately 80% of the 1.1 billion persons who smoke tobacco worldwide reside in low- and middle-income countries (2,3). The Wor...

Use of some medications during pregnancy can be harmful to the developing fetus, and discussion of the risks and benefits with prenatal care providers can provide guidance to pregnant women. We used Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data collected for 2015 births aggregated from 34 US states (n = 40,480 women) to estimate the prevalence o...

Introduction Hardened smokers are those who do not want to quit, or find it very difficult to quit. This study assessed the prevalence and predictors of hardened smokers in 19 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Methods We used nationally representative data from 19 LMICs that conducted the Global Adult Tobacco Survey during 2009–2013. Our a...

Introduction We assessed self-reported receipt of help or advice to stop smoking among current tobacco smoking students enrolled in school. Methods Using cross-sectional data collected between 2012–2015 from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS), and representing the latest year for which data were collected, we calculated prevalence of receipt o...

Each year, tobacco use causes approximately 7 million deaths worldwide, including approximately 6 million among tobacco users and an estimated 890,000 among nonsmokers exposed to secondhand smoke (1). Tobacco use is a leading preventable cause of disease globally and has been determined to cause adverse health outcomes such as coronary heart diseas...

Introduction Racial/ethnic inequities in low birth weight (LBW) and preterm birth (PTB) persist in the United States. Research has identified numerous risk factors for adverse birth outcomes; however, they do not fully explain the occurrence of, or inequalities in PTB/LBW. Stress has been proposed as one explanation for differences in LBW and PTB b...

Background In 2003, the Philippines passed extensive tobacco control legislation, including minimum legal sales age (MLSA) laws, textual warning labels (TWL), and smoke-free public places (SFPP), and pricing strategies. This study examined the impact of these tobacco control policies on cigarette smoking among Filipino youth 13 to 15 years old who...

Background Globally, evidence on the awareness and use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) is limited. We examined the awareness and current use of e-cigarettes among male and female students aged 13-15 years old across 16 countries or regions that conducted the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS). Methods GYTS is a cross-sectional, nationally...

Background Quitting tobacco use can reduce smokers' risks for disease and premature death. We used the trans-theoretical behavior change model to examine temporal differences in readiness to quit smoking among adults in five countries. Methods We analyzed two independent samples from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey, a standardized national adult h...

Objective The World Health Organization recommends that smokers be offered help to quit. A better understanding of smokers’ interest in and commitment to quitting could guide tobacco control efforts. We assessed temporal differences in stages of change toward quitting among smokers in Thailand and Turkey. Methods Two waves (independent samples) of...

Tobacco use is the world’s leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality, resulting in nearly 6 million deaths each year (1). Smoked tobacco products, such as cigarettes and cigars, are the most common form of tobacco consumed worldwide (2), and most tobacco smokers begin smoking during adolescence (3). The health benefits of quitting are gr...

Nearly six million people worldwide die from tobacco-attributable causes every year, making tobacco the leading cause of preventable disease and death. If current trends continue, tobacco use is expected to result in one billion deaths by the end of the century, most of these in low- and middle-income countries. Cigarette smoking is the most common...

Tobacco use is a leading preventable cause of morbidity and mortality, with nearly 6 million deaths caused by tobacco use worldwide every year (1). Cigarette smoking is the most common form of tobacco use in most countries, and the majority of adult smokers initiate smoking before age 18 years (2,3). Limiting access to cigarettes among youths is an...

Background The tobacco epidemic in Bangladesh is pervasive. Expenditures on tobacco may reduce money available for food in a country with a high malnutrition rate. Objectives The aims of the study are to quantify the opportunity costs of tobacco expenditure in terms of nutrition (ie, food energy) forgone and the potential improvements in the house...

Problem/condition: In 2009, before passage of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), approximately 20% of women aged 18-64 years had no health insurance coverage. In addition, many women experienced transitions in coverage around the time of pregnancy. Having no health insurance coverage or experiencing gaps or shifts in covera...

An estimated 11.6% of the world cigarette market is illicit, representing more than 650 billion cigarettes a year and $40.5 billion in lost revenue. Illicit tobacco trade refers to any practice related to distributing, selling, or buying tobacco products that is prohibited by law, including tax evasion (sale of tobacco products without payment of a...

In June 2011, the Advisory Committee on Immunizations Practices (ACIP) recommended 1 dose of a tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine during pregnancy for women who had not received Tdap previously. Before 2011, Tdap was recommended for unvaccinated women either before pregnancy or postpartum. In October 2012, ACIP expanded the...

Maternal and child health (MCH) surveillance data are important for understanding gaps in services and disparities in burden of disease, access to care, risk behaviors, and health outcomes. However, national and state surveillance systems are not always designed to gather sufficient data for calculating reliable estimates of the health conditions a...

Background:In 2011, the Advisory Committee on Immunizations Practices (ACIP) recommended a dose of a tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine during pregnancy for unvaccinated pregnant women and then in 2012, vaccination for both pregnant and post-partum women. In 2013, ACIP expanded the recommendation, advising pregnant women be...

Pregnant women and infants are at increased risk for influenza-related complications and hospitalization. Influenza vaccination among pregnant women can reduce their risk for respiratory illness and reduce the risk for influenza in their infants aged <6 months. Since 2004, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and the American College of...

Breastfeeding is a highly effective preventive measure a mother can take after birth to protect the health of her infant, as well as her own. Immunologic and antiinflammatory properties of breast milk protect against numerous illnesses and diseases in children. Benefits of breastfeeding for infants include a lower risk for ear infections, atopic de...

Objectives: Vaccination during pregnancy significantly reduces the risk of influenza illness among pregnant women and their infants up to 6 months of age; however, many women do not get vaccinated. We examined disparities in vaccination coverage among women who delivered a live-born infant during the 2009-2010 influenza season, when two separate i...

Problem/condition: Promoting preconception health can potentially improve women's health and pregnancy outcomes. Evidence-based interventions exist to reduce many maternal behaviors and chronic conditions that are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes such as tobacco use, alcohol use, inadequate folic acid intake, obesity, hypertension, and d...

Because influenza can be especially severe during pregnancy, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommend influenza vaccination for pregnant women. Pregnant women experience increased morbidity from influenza infection, and they were at increased risk for severe disease and m...

We investigated the reliability and validity of three self-reported indicators from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) survey. We used 2008 PRAMS (n=15,646) data from 12 states that had implemented the 2003 revised U.S. Certificate of Live Birth. We estimated reliability by kappa coefficient and validity by sensitivity and spec...

Problem/condition: Substantial improvement in annual influenza vaccination of recommended groups is needed to reduce the health effects of influenza and reach Healthy People 2020 targets. No single data source provides season-specific estimates of influenza vaccination coverage and related information on place of influenza vaccination and concerns...

Immigrants have lower rates of low birth weight (LBW) and to some extent preterm birth (PTB), than their US-born counterparts. This pattern has been termed the 'immigrant health paradox'. Social ties and support are one proposed explanation for this phenomenon. We examined the contribution of social ties and social support to LBW and PTB by race/et...

Most women in the US have access to health care and insurance during pregnancy; however women with Medicaid-paid deliveries lose Medicaid eligibility in the early postpartum period. This study examined the association between health insurance coverage at the time of delivery and health conditions that may require preventive or treatment services ex...

Background: Studies have demonstrated disparities in influenza vaccination coverage in the United States. Vaccination during pregnancy significantly reduces the risk of influenza illness among pregnant women and their infants up to 6 months of age; however, many women do not get vaccinated. We examined disparities in vaccination uptake by women who...

This report describes surveillance systems used for assessing influenza vaccination coverage among pregnant women in the United States. Coverage estimates and factors associated with maternal vaccination are reviewed for internet panel surveys of pregnant women and the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS); new estimates are reported...

Objective of this study was to assess the relationship between method of delivery and breastfeeding. Using data (2005-2006) from the longitudinal Infant Feeding Practices Study II (n = 3,026) we assessed the relationship between delivery method (spontaneous vaginal, induced vaginal, emergency cesarean, and planned cesarean) and breastfeeding: initi...

Food insecurity has detrimental effects on the mental, physical, and behavioral health of developing children. Few studies, however, have sought to determine whether associations exist between food insecurity and intake of vegetables, fresh or canned fruit, candy or cookies, French fries, fast food, water, milk, fruit juices, fruit drinks, soda, an...

Breastfeeding rates are typically higher among Hispanic women; however, they vary by acculturation status in that those more acculturated are less likely to breastfeed than those who are less acculturated. This study examined the association between acculturation and breastfeeding behaviors using population-based data. Data (N = 8942) from the Preg...

Objective: To assess the relationship between method of delivery and breastfeeding initiation and duration. Methods: This analysis, of the longitudinal Infant Feeding Practices Study II, examined method of delivery and breastfeeding (n=3026). The outcomes included breastfeeding initiation, breastfeeding at 4 weeks and mean breastfeeding duration. D...

Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors during pregnancy often predispose women to multiple risks including adverse pregnancy outcomes and impaired health status for mothers. This study assessed the trends in the prevalence of health-related behavioral risk factors over time among U.S. pregnant women. Data from 22,604 pregnant women aged 18-44 years who part...

Background: Food insecurity has detrimental effects on developing children. Few population-based studies, however, have examined the association between food insecurity and food and drink intake. Objective: To determine whether independent associations exist between food insecurity and intake of vegetables, fresh or canned fruit, candy or cookies,...

Mental illnesses account for a larger proportion of disability in developed countries than any other group of illnesses, including cancer and heart disease. In 2004, an estimated 25% of adults in the United States reported having a mental illness in the previous year. The economic cost of mental illness in the United States is substantial, approxim...

Research shows that maternity care practices are important to promoting breastfeeding in the early post partum period; however, little is known about the association between maternity care practices and breastfeeding among different racial and ethnic groups. We examined the association between maternity care practices and breastfeeding duration to...

To study birth outcomes among live born infants conceived by women who used infertility treatment. Population-based surveillance of women who recently delivered a live infant. The birth outcomes among infants whose mothers used assisted reproductive technology (ART) or ovulation stimulation medications alone were compared with the outcomes of infan...

Since 2004, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) have recommended that pregnant women receive the seasonal influenza vaccine, regardless of pregnancy trimester, because of their increased risk for severe complications from influenza. However, the uptake of the inf...

To identify facilitators of and barriers to pregnant women being vaccinated against seasonal influenza by identifying factors associated with influenza vaccination during pregnancy among women who had recently given birth to a live infant. We analyzed pooled data from Georgia (n=2,692) and Rhode Island (n=2,732) participants in the 2006 and 2007 su...

Background: Pregnant women have the lowest rates of seasonal influenza vaccine coverage among all adult priority groups and little is known about the characteristics of pregnant or post-partum women who receive or choose not to receive vaccination. Objectives: This study examined correlates of receiving seasonal influenza vaccine during pregnancy...

To examine the remains of the Community-Based Reproductive Health Project (CBRHP) implemented by CARE-Tanzania to address high maternal mortality in two rural districts. In early 2007, data were collected from 29 villages and used to assess sustainability of emergency transport systems, retention of village health workers (VHWs), and their potentia...

Adequate control of cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes, requires management. Low-income women living in rural areas with limited health services may experience special challenges in managing chronic conditions. In 2008, we conducted an analysis of the baseline, cross-sectional survey of 733 uninsur...

This study assessed the validity of several self-reported cardiovascular risk factors among low-income women aged 40-64 years in West Virginia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted of 733 women participating in the Well Integrated Screening and Evaluation for Women Across the Nation (WISEWOMAN) project in West Virginia to examine agreement betwee...

Access to healthcare, especially for women of reproductive age, is important to preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum care and ultimately to the well-being of women and their families. In this issue, we highlight data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System (PRAMS) regarding low-income women's access to Medicaid before becoming...

Aims: Many people with depression may be undiagnosed and thus untreated. We sought to assess the prevalence and correlates of undiagnosed depression among adults with diabetes. Methods: Data of U.S. adults from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System in 2006 were analyzed. Cox proportional hazard regression analysis was used to estimate p...

Lack of health insurance coverage for working-age adults is one of the most pressing issues facing the U.S. population, and it continues to be a concern for a large number of people. In the absence of a national solution, the states and municipalities are left to address this need. We examined the disparities in uninsurance prevalence by state and...

Diabetes increases the risk of breast and colorectal cancers and has an undetermined relationship to cervical cancer. Improved screenings for these cancers are effective in reducing cancer mortality. To examine the prevalence of receiving recommended screenings for these cancers and to assess the trends in the screening rates over time among US wom...

The US-Mexico border region has a growing population and limited health care infrastructure. Preventive health behaviors such as breastfeeding ease the burden on this region's health care system by reducing morbidity and health care costs. We examined correlates of attempted breastfeeding before hospital discharge on each side of the US-Mexico bord...

To use data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) to examine trends in the lack of health insurance coverage among working-age US adults and to identify populations without coverage. The BRFSS data from 1993 to 2006 were analyzed. SUDAAN software was used to generate estimates of prevalence and corresponding standard errors, a...

The objective of this study was to determine if Spanish language preference was significantly associated with barriers to healthcare services among a nationally representative sample of Hispanic persons in the United States. Cross-sectional analysis of secondary data. Differences in outcomes between those responding in Spanish and those responding...

Access to healthcare and participation in preventive screening are important to the well-being of women. Using 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data, we examined the prevalence of health insurance coverage among working-age women and their use of selected preventive health screening. These data were also used to determine the...

To examine the associations between frequent mental distress (FMD; 14 or more mentally unhealthy days during the previous 30 days), health behaviors, body weight, and use of preventive services among adults >or=65 years using the 2003 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Participants (N = 52,600) were asked how many days during the p...

We examined pregnancy intention measures and contraceptive use behaviors among reproductive-age women using data from two CDC-based surveillance systems. We analyzed data for women aged 18-44 from 4 states that collected information on pregnancy and contraceptive use from both the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS, n = 4201) and the...

This analysis explores the association between acculturation and body weight, self-perceptions of weight, and attempt to lose weight among Mexican Americans. Data were analyzed from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) for 2001-2002. Indicator of acculturation used was language assimilation. Factor analysis was used to cons...

To determine the association between psychosocial factors and use of multivitamins among women (18-40 years; N=3438) who were enrolled in Kaiser Permanente Health Plan in southern California. A telephone survey elicited information about multivitamins and psychosocial and demographic characteristics. The outcome variables were any and regular use (...

Little is known about the relationship between healthy behaviors and the prevalence of chronic diseases in older adults with disabilities. This study examines the prevalence of selected healthy lifestyle behaviors related to chronic diseases among adults aged 65 years and older with and without disabilities. Data from the 2003 Behavioral Risk Facto...

To explore current patterns of diagnosis and treatment, quantify household economic impact and identify household strategies to cover the costs of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) care in rural Bangladesh. Structured interviews with 113 VL patients from 87 households documenting all provider visits and expenditures for health care for VL, and the ways i...

During the 2004–2005 influenza season, the supply of vaccine to the United States was significantly reduced. In response, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices issued interim recommendations for prioritizing vaccination. Given trends in racial/ethnic disparities in vaccination for influe...

To estimate the prevalence of selected behaviors related to chronic diseases among women > or =65 years old using the 2003 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data. Seven behaviors were assessed: having a healthy weight, current cigarette smoking status, consumption of at least five fruits or vegetables daily, leisure time physical a...

We examined breastfeeding behaviors, periods of vulnerability for breastfeeding cessation, reasons for breastfeeding cessation, and the association between predelivery intentions and breastfeeding behaviors. Using 2 years (2000 and 2001) of data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System we assessed the percentage of women who began b...

We examined changes in the prevalence of selected chronic disease-related indicators among women aged 18-44 years using the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data for two time periods, 1991-1992 and 2000-2001. We examined alcohol use, cigarette smoking, leisure time physical activity, body mass index (BMI), having had Pap smear scr...

To examine the associations of menstrual-related problems with mental health and health behaviors in a U.S. population-based study. We analyzed data obtained from women aged 18-55 years (n = 11,648) who participated in the 2002 National Health Interview Survey, an ongoing, computer-assisted personal interview of the noninstitutionalized U.S. popula...

Since 1990, South Asia has experienced a resurgence of kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis). To determine risk factors for kala-azar, we performed cross-sectional surveys over a 3-year period in a Bangladeshi community. By history, active case detection, and serologic screening, 155 of 2,356 residents had kala-azar with onset from 2000 to 2003. Risk...

The increasing body mass index (BMI) of women in the United States gives rise to concerns about associated comorbid conditions and decreases in life expectancy. Also of concern are underweight women, especially as the result of an eating disorder or undernutrition. Data from a national sample of women aged > or =18 years (n = 98,387) are used to ex...

To examine the prevalence of mental and physical distress indicators among women of reproductive age and the association of these indicators with cigarette smoking and alcohol use, by pregnancy status. The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data for several years were aggregated across states and weighted for this analysis. Seven measures o...

Monitoring risk behaviors for chronic diseases and participation in preventive practices are important for developing effective health education and intervention programs to prevent morbidity and mortality. Therefore, continual monitoring of these behaviors and practices at the state, city, and county levels can assist public health programs in eva...

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) or kala-azar (KA) affects the rural poor, causing significant morbidity and mortality. We examined the epidemiological and social impact of KA in an affected village in Bangladesh. A population-based survey of the village residents showed a case fatality rate of 14.7% among females and 5.3% among males. Before initiation...

Visceral leishmaniasis, or kala azar (KA), affects the rural poor, causing significant morbidity and mortality. We examined the epidemiologic, social, and economic impact of KA in a village in Bangladesh. A population-based survey among 2,348 people demonstrated a KA incidence of 2% per year from 2000 to 2002, with a case-fatality rate of 19% among...

We present an evaluation of the Community Capacity Building and Empowerment initiative, undertaken by the Community-Based Reproductive Health Project (CBRHP), designed to address high maternal morbidity and mortality. Qualitative data from group interviews and program data from CBRHP were used to assess progress in development and use of community...

High-risk behaviors and lack of preventive care are associated with higher rates of morbidity and mortality in the United States. Without continued monitoring of these factors, state health departments would have difficulty tracking and evaluating progress toward Healthy People 2010 and their own state objectives. Monitoring chronic disease-related...

To examine breast-feeding initiation and continuation among women with recent live births in 10 states. By using Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System surveillance data (n = 96,204), we assessed breast-feeding initiation and continuation for > or =10 weeks among women with recent deliveries from 1993 to 1998. We used 1993 as the base for...

This analysis considers factors that underlie the leading causes of death and disability for adult women in the United States and changes in those factors over the previous decade. 1991-2001 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data are used to review changes over the decade in the most important indicators of women's health. Estimate...

Monitoring Behavior, Lifestyle and Social Determinants of Health for Women 1991–2001 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Karin A. Mack, Ph.D. [presenter] and Indu B. Ahluwalia, M.P.H., Ph.D. CDC/NCCDPHP/DACH/BSB, Atlanta, GA Objective: Much of the burden for health care stems from chronic illnesses, and risk for chronic illness is re...

Inadequate health care and long delays in obtaining care during obstetric emergencies are major contributors to high maternal death rates in Tanzania. Formative research conducted in the Mwanza region identified several transportation-related reasons for delays in receiving assistance. In 1996, the Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (...

To examine the occurrence of multiple risk behaviors during pregnancy among women who delivered a live birth and to examine the risk of delivering small for gestational age (SGA) infants for women with multiple risks. We used data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System to conduct the research. Pregnancy Risk Assessment System is a pop...

Each year, approximately 4,000 pregnancies result in spina bifida or anencephaly, serious and often fatal conditions for the newborn. The B vitamin folic acid can reduce the incidence of these conditions by 50%-70%. To examine folic acid awareness among women who had recently delivered a live-born infant, CDC analyzed Pregnancy Risk Assessment Moni...

The Women Physicians' Health Study (WPHS) offers a unique opportunity to examine the counseling and screening practices of women physicians. The objectives of this study were to: describe the prevalence of self-reported smoking cessation counseling among primary care women physicians and determine the association between physician demographic, prof...

Using population-based data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), this study examines the prevalence and intensity of smoking before, during, and after pregnancy, and identifies correlates of postpartum smoking relapse. Women who delivered live births in 1996 responded to a mailed questionnaire approximately 2 to 6 months af...

Background: Using population-based data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), this study examines the prevalence and intensity of smoking before, during, and after pregnancy, and identifies correlates of postpartum smoking relapse.Methods: Women who delivered live births in 1996 responded to a mailed questionnaire approximat...

Beginning in 1990, Georgia's Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) initiated 5 new strategies to promote breastfeeding among its pregnant and postpartum clients. These strategies were implemented in 1991, each to be provided as an addition to its standard program of counseling on breastfeeding and distributin...