Henry Mushinsky

• Ph.D. in Zoology
• University of South Florida

Conservation schemes typically place species into categories, ranging roughly from rare to common or from vulnerable to least concern. Although a species may not be categorized as rare or vulnerable, it still may be sensitive to environmental change and, therefore, at risk of decline. To illustrate the importance of determining species sensitivity,...

Oviductal sperm storage occurs in most squamate lineages, as well as in Tuatara. It is hypothesized to confer fitness benefits by increasing opportunities for reproductive success. These opportunities are specific to each selective landscape, but all are constrained by an underlying requisite phenotype, the duration that sperm can be stored and rem...

OBJECTIVES: Here, we present the results of a study that used radiotelemetry to track the movements of H. gratiosa adults migrating (see Semlitsch 2008) away from a west-central Florida breeding site. Although this study was conducted in the late 1990s and followed only a small number of individuals at a single site—a problem that is typical for st...

How have we managed to maintain our research partnership for more than 30 yr? We have come to think that personal respect for one another and trust that our core values and motivations are immutable have been key. Our partnership began with a project to gather much-needed information on Gopherus polyphemus (Daudin) (Gopher Tortoise). We soon realiz...

The gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) has experienced dramatic population declines throughout its distribution in the southeastern United States and is federally listed as threatened in the area west of the Tombigbee and Mobile rivers. While there is molecular support for recognizing the listed portion of the range as genetically distinct, othe...

Wildfires are highly variable and can disturb habitats, leading to direct and indirect effects on the genetic characteristics of local populations. Florida scrub is a fire-dependent, highly fragmented, and severely threatened habitat. Understanding the effect of fire on genetic characteristics of the species that use this habitat is critically impo...

Effective population size is a fundamental parameter in population genetics, and factors that alter effective population size will shape the genetic characteristics of populations. Habitat disturbance may have a large effect on genetic characteristics of populations by influencing immigration and gene flow, particularly in fragmented habitats. We u...

We examined the effects of sampling intensity, season, and planned burning on indirect monitoring of the rare Florida Sand Skink (Plestiodon [Neoseps] reynoldsi) using cover boards. Our study was carried out initially within 18 400-m2 enclosures replicated across three fire return intervals, so that we could estimate population density with simulat...

Concordant phylogeographic patterns among species indicate similar ecological and/or evolutionary histories. A concordant phylogeographic pattern exists among two fossorial skinks inhabiting Florida scrub habitat on the Lake Wales Ridge in central Florida. We evaluate whether the Peninsula Crowned Snake (Tantilla relicta relicta), a fossorial speci...

Hybridization can be an important evolutionary force by generating new species and influencing evolution of parental species in multiple ways, including introgression and the consequences of hybrid vigor. Determining the ecological processes underlying evolution in hybrid zones is difficult however because it requires examining changes in both geno...

Many reptile translocations fail, and they fail largely because the translocated individuals are faced with low habitat quality at the recipient site and/or disperse away from it. At least some failures may be forestalled by developing clear goals and success criteria, having a better understanding of the species' biology and the threats it faces,...

Tortoises, those unmistakable turtles, evolved from a lineage that split off from the familiar pond turtles roughly 100 million years ago. Over time, these plant-eating land turtles spread around the world, growing to an enormous size (depending on the species) and living so long that they have become the stuff of legends. By most accounts, they ar...

The Florida Scrub ecosystem depends on fire to sustain ecosystem function and to support resident plant and animal species. A recent study addressed the relationship between the time since last fire (TSF) and resident amphibians and reptiles in rosemary bald, one Florida Scrub habitat type. This is a parallel study in another Florida Scrub habitat...

Habitat selection requires choice, which differentiates it from habitat use, and choice, in turn, is dependent upon the responses of organisms to the environmental, social, and other cues that they perceive. Habitat selection by the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) was investigated by translocating tortoises and monitoring their movements with...

Sceloporus woodi (Florida Scrub Lizard) offers an excellent opportunity to contrast connected and fragmented habitats to determine how historical patterns influence genetic differentiation in fragmented habitats. We screened six microsatellite loci in S. woodi (N = 154) from seven sites at Archbold Biological Station, a large, connected scrub habit...

Prevalence of parasites can be an indicator of individual and population health of hosts. Populations of parasites can be affected by habitat management practices, however, which in turn can affect prevalence on hosts. We assessed the influence of varying fire histories on the prevalence of ectoparasites, primarily chiggers (mite larvae of the genu...

Our goal was to assess the conservation status of the understudied and naturally uncommon habitat specialist, the golden mouse (Ochrotomys nuttalli), at the edge of its range where its historically fragmented habitat has been subjected to severe loss. Peninsular Florida, north of approximately 27° latitude, USA. We used data gathered from museum co...

1. Wetlands are ecologically and economically important ecosystems but are threatened globally by many forms of human disturbance. Understanding the responses of wetland species to human disturbance is essential for effective wetland management and conservation. 2. We undertook a study to determine (i) whether anurans can be used effectively to ass...

Identifying geographic barriers that define genetic structure within a species is crucial in formulating an effective conservation plan. The identification of appropriate management units is critical for the protection and recovery of the gopher tortoise Gopherus polyphemus, which have declined across their entire range. Previous molecular work at...

The threatened Bluetail Mole Skink (Plestiodon egregius lividus) is limited to the xeric habitats of the southern Lake Wales Ridge in central Florida. To generate important data for conserving this species, we characterized genetic variation at the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene and seven microsatellite loci among multiple populations. We compared...

Epigenetic mechanisms impact several phenotypic traits and may be important for ecology and evolution. The introduced house sparrow (Passer domesticus) exhibits extensive phenotypic variation among and within populations. We screened methylation in populations from Kenya and Florida to determine if methylation varied among populations, varied with...

We dedicate this contribution in memory of Don Stone for his tireless commitment to the Or ga ni za tion for Tropical Studies, including development of the Jesse Smith Noyes Fellowships that provided us with funding for our long-term residency at the La Selva Biological Field Station, where we developed and learned about permanent plots. We are mos...

Comparison of the resource accumulation patterns exhibited by related species inhabiting disparate hydrological conditions can provide insight into how they are affected by and respond to different environments. We compared the seasonal body condition of the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) in the Mojave Desert with that of the gopher tortoise...

The Florida Sand Skink (Plestiodon reynoldsi), the Florida Scrub Lizard (Sceloporus woodi), and the Six-lined Racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) occur in the threatened and fire-maintained Florida scrub habitat. Fire may have different consequences to local genetic diversity of these species because they each have different microhabitat preferenc...

Introduced species offer unique opportunities to study evolution in new environments, and some provide opportunities for understanding the mechanisms underlying macroecological patterns. We sought to determine how introduction history impacted genetic diversity and differentiation of the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), one of the most broadly di...

Daily and seasonal activity of four sympatric species of Natricine water snakes was studied in southern Louisiana. Daily patterns were monitored nearly continuously from May to October 1975, under natural conditions. Nerodia (Natrix) cyclopion and N. fasciata were mostly diurnally active but N. fasciata became nocturnal in September. Nerodia rhombi...

Gastrophryne carolinensis was eaten by four potential vertebrate predators, significantly less frequently than control anurans. The combined responses of all predators was to reject G. carolinensis in 60% of the experimental trials (χ2 = 20.49; p < 0.01), whereas controls were rejected in less than 5% of trials (7/150). The most frequent response o...

Fire is a complex event that maintains many ecological systems. The Florida Sand Skink (Plestiodon reynoldsi) is precinctive to Florida Scrub, a habitat that is maintained by infrequent fire. We characterize the effect of fire on genetic diversity and genetic differentiation at eight microsatellite loci in the Florida Sand Skink (n=470) collected f...

A recent study showed that populations of the threatened Florida Sand Skink had limited loss of genetic diversity over the past 60 yr as a consequence of anthropogenic fragmentation. This study assumed that 60 yr represents 30–37 generations for the Florida Sand Skink, but a new evaluation of mark–recapture data shows that 60 yr represents only abo...

We examined the question of whether an apparently restricted diet qualifies the Florida sand skink (Plestiodon reynoldsi) as a dietary specialist. We gathered diet data from the three existing sources, added new data from individuals that we collected, and used these data to calculate measures of dietary diversity. We compared the diet of P. reynol...

Background/Question/Methods The threatened Florida Sand Skink (Plestiodon reynoldsi) occurs on the scrub of central Florida. To understand the genetic characteristics of the Florida Sand Skink, and to learn more about the effect of fire on Florida Scrub organisms, we have conducted genetic analysis using both DNA sequences and microsatellite loci...

Background/Question/Methods The Florida Sand Skink (Plestiodon reynoldsi) is a small fossorial lizard with reduced limbs and a slender body, that “swims” through the sands of some of the central ridges of Florida. Because the Florida Sand Skink largely is restricted to the Florida Scrub, and this habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented, the s...

Analysis of skeletochronological variation in fibulae of the threatened Florida Sand Skink, Plestiodon (Neoseps) reynoldsi, found numbers of growth marks that almost always exceeded the maximum life span predicted by mark—recaptures studies. We propose that the large number of growth marks observed in the Florida Sand Skink reflect variation in foo...

1. We investigated agonistic behaviour and associated characteristics of Sceloporus woodi (Florida scrub lizard), Sceloporus undulatus (Eastern fence lizard) and their hybrids using staged territorial encounters. 2. These Sceloporus hybrids exhibit transgressive aggression and transgressive head‐girth relative to the parental species and the transg...

The use of space by individual animals strongly influences the spatial extent, abundance, and growth rates of their populations. We analyzed the spatial ecology and habitat selection of Masticophis flagellum (the coachwhip) at three different scales to determine which habitats are most important to this species. Home ranges and mean daily displacem...

We obtained demographic data on more than 60 gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) populations in Florida before the emergence of upper respiratory tract disease (URTD). We later resurveyed 10 populations to compare demographic profiles at sites where antibodies to Mycoplasma agassizii were detected subsequently and at sites where they were not. We...

Masticophis flagellum (Coachwhip) and Coluber constrictor (Eastern Racer) are widespread North American snakes with similar foraging modes and habits. Little is known about the selection of prey by either species, and despite their apparently similar foraging habits, comparative studies of the foraging ecology of sympatric M. flagellum and C. const...

Gopher tortoises on lands to be developed may be translocated as a conservation measure, sometimes to areas already occupied by the species. We assessed the success of this type of translocation by monitoring the movements, spatial positioning, health, and reproductive activity of translocated and resident individuals at a site in central Florida f...

The mangrove salt marsh snake (Nerodia clarkii compressicauda) occupies a unique and disappearing habitat in much of coastal southern Florida. Given extensive habitat fragmentation and high predation pressure in open spaces, it seems likely that populations of N. c. compressicauda consist of isolated groups of related individuals. To assess the deg...

Most animals forage under the risk of predation. An animal may balance the benefits gained from obtaining adequate nutritious forage with the risk of falling prey to a predator by employing alternative, adaptive foraging tactics. We examined the foraging tactics employed by a central place forager, Gopherus polyphemus, as it foraged away from a ref...

Minimum patch size for a viable population can be estimated in several ways. The density-area method estimates minimum patch size as the smallest area in which no new individuals are encountered as one extends the arbitrary boundaries of a study area outward. The density-area method eliminates the assumption of no variation in density with size of...

We compared two assessments of the status of gopher tortoise populations at 10 protected sites in Florida, taken about a decade apart. We assessed status indirectly, using surveys of burrows along belt transects. Transect placement and timing were identical between surveys. We compared numbers of burrows, relative numbers of burrows of different ac...

We completed a 3-yr demographic study of the rare Florida scrub lizard, Sceloporus woodi Stejneger, in a small habitat fragment. Censuses were conducted at 2-7 d intervals, with all hatchlings marked and monitored for survival. Field and laboratory observations were used to estimate fecundity. Survival and fecundity data were combined to estimate p...

We documented both the diet and dietary preference of free-ranging juvenile gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) by direct observation. All observations were conducted on a 1-ha plot of sandhill habitat that has been maintained on a 1-yr fire periodicity by controlled burning for more than 25 yr. Seventeen foraging observations of juvenile gopher...

The format of an application to the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) frequently is designed to obtain detailed information from medical faculty proposing studies involving a precisely determined number of a few well-characterized species in a controlled laboratory setting. Unfortunately, these application formats typically are le...

It is difficult to measure the success of wildlife community restoration when the restoration goal concerns a relatively broad. geographic area, rather than a particular piece of land, since many restored sites need to be compared to many reference sites simultaneously. A review of the methods used to measure success. in previous restoration effort...

It is difficult to measure the success of wildlife community restoration when the restoration goal concerns a relatively broad geographic area, rather than a particular piece of land, since many restored sites need to be compared to many reference sites simultaneously. A review of the methods used to measure success in previous restoration efforts...

Florida scrub habitat is highly endangered because of high demand for land for agriculture and real estate. Maintenance of remaining patches of Florida scrub habitat requires active management. We experimentally investigated the effects of clear-cutting and burning on sand skink populations in three patches of sand pine scrub. Each patch included a...

The nesting ecology of Kinosternon baurii was studied on a sandhill in central Florida from September 1991 through February 1995. Gravid females were marked and tracked to their nest sites using thread bobbins attached to the carapace. Peak nesting season was September through November with a second minor peak in June. Females laid 1-3 clutches per...

Based on presence/absence of species, we proposed previously that large fragments of the Florida sand pine scrub habitat do not possess greater conservation value for vertebrates than do archipelagos of small and medium-sized fragments. We reexamined the values of fragments of different sizes, based this time on abundances of species. We asked whet...

Juvenile Gopherus polyphemus (1-4 years old) were tested for seasonal differences in their activities, moves, home range sizes, and uses of burrows in an upland sandhill community. Tracking with radiotelemetry revealed the tortoises were inactive for 90% of their time. Most activity was in spring. Tortoises spent more time basking on burrow mounds...

Because we possess little understanding of what constitutes optimal habitat for the threatened sand skink, any individual charged with choosing among habitat fragments to promote recovery of the species will need to employ some guesswork. We examined the relative values of employing two kinds of guesswork, 'uneducated guesswork,' from literature de...

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The gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) is the only tortoise that occurs east of the Mississippi River. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has separated the species into two main populations. The western population (southwest Mississippi and southeast Louisiana) is Federally listed as threatened; the eastern population, which occurs in southern A...

Recent reports have suggested that a global decline in amphibian populations has taken place during the past few decades. Urban development is thought to affect the richness and abundances of species and, therefore, could be an important cause of decline. We estimated the richness and abundances of anurans in wetlands at a residential development a...

We surveyed the mangrove forest at the mouth of Lostman's River, on the southwestern coast of Florida, about 2 months after Hurricane Andrew had passed. Damage to the mangrove forest there was severe: about 60% of the trees were either uprooted or broken, about 25% of the upright, unbroken trees were dead, and only about 14% of the upright, unbroke...

The mangrove salt marsh snake (Nerodia clarkii compressicauda Baird and Girard) may experience varying levels of foraging success because the prop roots of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) have a six-fold variation in density. Adult female N. c. compressicauda were allowed to forage for 24 h on a known density of prey in an enclosed habitat...

Structures of habitat fragments interact with autecologies of resident species to produce patterns in taxonomic richness. Understanding this interaction is crucial to habitat conservation. We studied the vertebrates inhabiting fragments of the severely threatened sand pine scrub habitat of interior peninsular Florida. We surveyed 16 scrubs in south...

We used data on wounds less than six months old to evaluate the relationship between snake body size and predator inefficiency on six water snake species in the southeastern United States. Generally, wound frequencies increased with increasing body size, suggesting that predators may be less efficient as an individual snake grows larger. Conspecifi...

Individuals of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus (Daudin)) seem not to orient their burrows in particular directions, within populations, except where topographic relief influences them to do so. This result suggests that burrow orientation pattern might be expressed on a scale larger than that of the individual population, one that encompas...

Naturalists conceive of “rare” organisms as those narrow in geographic range, restricted to few habitats, or small in population sizes. Because rare organisms may be rare in a variety of ways, a particular conservation strategy that purports to protect them may not do so effectively in all cases; therefore, categorization of rarity in advance could...

Thirteen sand skinks, Neoseps reynoldsi, were observed and videotaped traversing variously spaced plexiglass channels and spacings of pins to investigate locomotory patterns of a slender elongate lizard, with reduced limbs. Five individuals were recorded both before and after tail autotomy. Neoseps moves its limbs in locomotion on a flat surface; t...

Widespread monitoring of population sizes for Gopherus polyphemus usually is done indirectly, by examining the burrows that tortoises construct. Indirect monitoring requires use of a correction factor, to relate numbers of burrows to numbers of tortoises. The authors demonstrate that the standard correction factor overestimates the number of tortoi...

The southeastern five-lined skink occurs in a wide range of habitats throughout Florida, but it is most abundant in scrub and sandhill (high pine) habitats. Both the scrub and sandhill habitats are fire maintained, and resident animals respond to the frequency of burning. Adult males were trapped most often in March and April, and adult females mos...

Draws together ideas on the meaning of habitat structure and ways in which such a feature can be measured and used in ecology. The 21 chapters are arranged into sections on: patterns; responses - colonization, succession and resource use; responses - predation, parasitism and disturbance; and applications. Apart from the final review chapter (Habit...

The previous 20 chapters in this volume have presented a tremendous amount of information on habitat structure. Although the authors tailored their definitions of habitat structure and the nature of their studies to the specific systems in which they are interested, the volume possesses themes which link the individual chapters together. Here, we p...

Discusses the effects of fire on habitat heterogeneity and plant structure, and examines post-fire habitat structure and mechanisms of regeneration, together with animal responses to such post-fire changes in vegetation. Two contrasting fire-maintained ecosystems are used to illustrate the diversity of community responses: the effects of fire on ha...

We conceived the idea for this book after teaching a graduate seminar on 'Habitat Complexity' at The University of South Florida. Discussions during the seminar led us to conclude that similar goals were to be found in studies of the topic that spanned the breadth of ecological research. Yet, the exact meaning of 'habitat structure', and the way in...

We report on the foraging ecology of a population of mangrove water snakes, Nerodia fasciata compressicauda, from central Florida. Quantitative estimates of available prey allowed us to evaluate prey selection ontogenetically. Large snakes were more discriminating among prey sizes than were small snakes. To estimate snake gape, we used the general...

The carabid beetlePasimachus subsulcatus is an abundant ground-dwelling insect in west central Florida that exudes a powerful mucous membrane irritant when disturbed. This secretion can be sprayed over 10 cm from the abdominal tip. The southeastern five-lined skink,Eumeces inexpectatus, is an abundant insectivorous lizard sympatric withPasimachus....

Scat analysis and foraging observations were used to determine the diet of a gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus, population in a sandhill community in west-central Florida. Vegetation was assessed to determine plant availability. The bulk of the gopher tortoise diet was composed of dominant plants in the habitat, although the tortoises were selec...