Hans J. ten Donkelaar

Radboud University Medical Centre (Radboudumc) · Department of Neurology

Unfortunately, the long-awaited revision of the official anatomical nomenclature, the Terminologia Anatomica 2 (TA2), which was issued in 2019 and after a referendum among the Member Societies officially approved by the General Assembly of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists in 2020, is built on a new version of the Regular A...

The neural crest is a temporary embryonic structure that is composed of a population of multipotent cells that delaminate from the ectoderm by epitheliomesenchymal transformation (► Sect. 5.2). These neural-crest-derived cells or neural crest cells (NCC) contribute to a large number of structures, including the spinal, cranial and autonomic ganglia...

The cerebellum is one of the best studied parts of the brain. The cerebellar cortex is composed of four main types of neurons: granule cells, Purkinje cells, and two types of inhibitory interneurons, the Golgi cells and the stellate/basket cells. The cortex receives three kinds of input: the mossy fibers (most afferent systems), the climbing fibers...

The cerebral cortex can be divided into a large isocortex, a much smaller allocortex (the hippocampal formation and the olfactory cortex), and a transition zone (the mesocortex) in between. Although many individual variations exist in the sulcal pattern and in the extent of the various cortical areas, the remarkable conservation of the pattern of a...

Neurulation has been extensively studied in amphibian, avian and mammalian embryos and occurs in four stages: formation of the neural plate, shaping of the neural plate, bending of the neural plate and closure of the neural groove. The rostral part of the neural tube develops into the brain, whereas the caudal part becomes the spinal cord. This is...

Even after its development is complete, the spinal cord remains a rather simple structure with a ventral motor horn, a dorsal sensory horn and an intermediate zone in between (► Sect. 6.2). Classic birthdating studies have demonstrated a ventral-to-dorsal gradient of histogenesis in the spinal cord with motoneurons appearing first, followed by neur...

Congenital malformations are structural abnormalities due to faulty development, present at birth, and amongst the major causes of prenatal, perinatal and infant mortality and morbidity. They include gross and microscopic malformations, inborn errors of metabolism, intellectual disability and cellular and molecular abnormalities. About 3% of newbor...

Many of the mechanisms underlying neural development are basically similar in vertebrates and invertebrates. Among vertebrates, popular species for experimental studies are zebrafish, the South African clawed toad, the chick embryo and mice. In mice, many spontaneously occurring mutations affecting the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum have been d...

The development of the human brain and spinal cord may be divided into several phases, each of which is characterized by particular developmental disorders. After implantation, formation and separation of the germ layers occur, followed by dorsal and ventral induction phases, and phases of neurogenesis, migration, organization and myelination. With...

The forebrain comprises those structures that are derived from the most rostral part of the neural plate, i.e. the primary prosencephalon. The primary prosencephalon divides into two major components: the caudal (epichordal) diencephalon and the rostral secondary prosencephalon. The secondary prosencephalon is the entire prechordal part of the neur...

The brain stem is composed of the midbrain (the mesencephalon) and the hindbrain (the rhombencephalon), and is, at least during development, segmentally organized. The midbrain is composed of two temporarily present segments known as mesomeres, whereas the hindbrain is composed of eight, and more recently of 12, rhombomeres (r0–r12), counting the i...

Background: Translational research refers to scientific findings that have been extensively studied in models and find their way to clinical studies. In a certain sense in translational anatomy a similar application of conventional anatomical knowledge finds its way to clinics in the surgical theatre. With the propagation of endoscopic middle ear s...

The ear or vestibulocochlear organ is composed of external, middle and inner parts. The external ear consists of the auricle and the external acoustic meatus with the outer layer of the tympanic membrane. The middle ear is formed by the tympanic cavity, the auditory ossicles and the inner layer of the tympanic membrane. The inner ear comprises the...

The cerebellum is one of the best studied parts of the brain. Its three-layered cortex and well-defined afferent and efferent fibre connections make the cerebellum a favourite field for research on the connectivity of the brain. The cerebellar cortex is composed of four main types of neurons: granule cells, Purkinje cells and two types of inhibitor...

The motoneurons in the spinal cord and the cranial nerve nuclei of the brain stem innervate the skeletal muscles. They form Sherrington’s “final common path” to the striated muscles for all signals that influence motor behaviour coming from peripheral sensory receptors and from motor centres in the brain stem and the cerebral cortex. The spinal and...

In this introductory chapter, the vascularization of the brain and the spinal cord are discussed with examples of the clinical syndromes of arterial or venous occlusions. The English terms of the Terminologia Neuroanatomica are used throughout. A further subdivision of the segments of the major brain arteries has been included. The same holds for t...

The topography of the visual pathways is of great importance in clinical neurology. Since the pathways extend from the orbit to the occipital pole, they are often involved in brain lesions as illustrated in several clinical cases. The visual pathways are highly organized, and lesions in different parts of the visual system produce characteristic vi...

Almost a century ago, Constantin von Economo observed that in patients with encephalitis lethargica lesions in the upper brain stem and posterior hypothalamus impaired consciousness. From lesion studies in cats and anatomical data, the idea arose that the brain stem reticular formation is the origin of the ascending reticular activating system (ARA...

With the exception of the olfactory and optic nerves, all cranial nerves enter or leave the brain stem. Three of the cranial nerves are purely sensory (I, II and VIII), five are motor (III, IV, VI, XI and XII) and the remaining nerves (V, VII, IX and X) are mixed. The olfactory nerve will be discussed in ► Chap. 14, the optic nerve in ► Chap. 8 and...

During the last decades, there have been tremendous technical developments to study the human central nervous system (CNS) and its connectivity. Modern imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have greatly improved our knowledge of the circuitry of the human CNS. New developments...

The basal ganglia are a group of closely connected cell masses, forming a more or less continuum, extending from the telencephalon to the midbrain tegmentum (Sect. 11.3). A few notes on the development of the basal ganglia are presented in Sect. 11.2. This complex comprises the striatum (the nucleus caudatus and the putamen, largely separated by th...

The cerebral cortex can be divided into a large isocortex or neocortex, a smaller allocortex (the hippocampal formation and the olfactory cortex) and a transition zone (the mesocortex) in between. The heterogeneous allocortex and the mesocortex have been discussed in ► Chap. 14. The various parts of the neocortex show large variations in the develo...

The autonomic nervous system innervates the visceral organs, the glands and the blood vessels. It regulates the internal environment, and it is largely responsible for maintaining normal bodily functions such as respiration, blood pressure and micturition. The peripheral autonomic nervous system consists of two parts, a thoracolumbar or sympathetic...

In this introductory chapter, techniques for studying brain circuitry will be discussed. Many features of the fibre connections of the human brain and spinal cord have been elucidated by the analysis of normal preparations stained by the Weigert-Pal and Klüver-Barrera techniques in order to demonstrate the myelin sheaths around axons of neurons (►...

The somatosensory system has by far the largest number of receptor types of any of the primate sensory systems, including mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, nociceptors and thermoreceptors. The sensation of touch is mainly mediated by mechanoreceptors, but there are a number of other processing channels within the somatosensory system for propriocep...

The term “limbic” was first used in 1664 by Thomas Willis to describe the cortical structures on the medial side of the cerebral hemisphere, surrounding the brain stem. Two centuries later, Paul Broca noticed that the cingulate gyrus and the parahippocampal gyrus form a border (limbus) around the corpus callosum and the brain stem. Broca subdivided...

The rather small hypothalamus and preoptic area contain a large number of more or less well-defined cell groups that are of utmost importance for preserving the individual and the species. From a developmental point of view, the hypothalamus and preoptic area have different origins but, despite ontogenetical differences, the hypothalamus and preopt...

Connections define the functions of neurons: information flows along connections, as well as growth factors and viruses, and even neuronal death can progress through connections. Accordingly, knowing how the various parts of the brain are interconnected to form functional systems is a prerequisite for properly understanding data from all fields in...

The white matter of the central nervous system (CNS) is difficult to represent in anatomy because it is located predominantly “between” other anatomical entities. In a classic presentation, like a cross section of a brain segment, white matter is present and can be labeled adequately. Several appearances of the same entity are feasible on successiv...

The gyri and sulci of the human brain were defined by pioneers such as Louis-Pierre Gratiolet and Alexander Ecker, and extensified by, among others, Dejerine (1895) and von Economo and Koskinas (1925). Extensive discussions of the cerebral sulci and their variations were presented by Ono et al. (1990), Duvernoy (1992), Tamraz and Comair (2000), and...

Ear, Development: The auricle or pinna (TNA Latin: Auricula) arises from a series of elevations (the auricular hillocks; TE2 Latin: Colliculi auriculares) around the first pharyngeal groove or cleft (TE2 Latin: Sulcus pharyngeus primus). They begin to appear in the pharyngeal arches 1 and 2 (TE2 Latin: Arcus pharyngeus primus and Arcus pharyngeus s...

Sac, Endolymphatic: The endolymphatic sac (TNA Latin: Saccus endolymphaticus) is a dilated terminal part of the endolymphatic duct located within the dura mater on the posterior surface of the petrous part of the temporal bone.

X-zone of cerebellum: The X-zone of the cerebellum (TNA Latin: Zona X) is a small longitudinal zone of the cerebellar cortex between the A- and B-zones.

Vagal part of ANS: The vagal part (TNA Latin: Pars vagalis) is a part of the craniosacral parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system. It supplies the organs of the abdominal cavity, except for the lesser pelvic organs and derivatives of the hindgut, via two trunks of the vagus nerves, the anterior and posterior vagal trunks (Fig. V1). The...

GABA, see Gamma-aminobutyric acid

Jacobsohn, Louis (1863–1941): German neurologist and neuroanatomist. The posterior or dorsal paramedian nucleus is known as the nucleus of Jacobsohn. In his 1909 publication, he also first mentioned the pedunculopontine nucleus. Reference: Über die Kerne des menschlichen Hirnstamms (Medulla oblongata, Pons und Pedunculus cerebri). Abh K Preuss Akad...

Radial astrocyte of cerebellum, see Cerebellum, Cell types

C1, C2 cell groups: The adrenergic or epinephric cell groups C1 and C2 (TNA Latin: Cellulae adrenergicae medullae oblongatae; Latin synonym: Cellulae adrenergicae C1, C2) are found in the caudal medulla oblongata (rhombomeres 7–11).

Quadrangular lobule: Two quadrangular lobules, anterior and posterior (TNA Latin: Lobulus quadrangularis anterior,—posterior), which are separated by the primary fissure, are found in the cerebellar hemisphere; see Cerebellum, Subdivision for illustration.

Pacchioni, Antonio (1665–1726): Italian anatomist who described the arachnoid granulations in the superior sagittal sinus. The term foramen of Pacchioni is sometimes used for the tentorial notch and for the foramen of the diaphragma sellae. Reference: Dissertatio epistolaris ad Lucam Schroeksium de glanduli conglobatis durae meningis humanae, indeq...

Iliac plexus: The iliac plexus (TNA Latin: Plexus iliacus) is a sympathetic perivascular plexus, arising from the abdominal aortic plexus and winding around the common iliac vessels to supply the lower limb.

A1–A16 cell groups: The aminergic (dopaminergic and noradrenergic or norepinephric) cell groups A1–A11 (TNA Latin: Cellulae aminergicae) are found in the brain stem (Fig. A1; the A3 cell group of rodents is not present in the human brain), A12–A15 in the prethalamus, the hypothalamus and the preoptic area (see Spencer S, et al. 1985 Brain Res 328:7...

D1, D2 zones: The D1 and D2 zones (TNA Latin: Zona D1 and Zona D2) are longitudinal zones of the cerebellar hemisphere, the Purkinje cells of which project to the dentate nucleus; see Cerebellum, Longitudinal zones for illustration.

FAI afferent fibers: Fast-adapting type I afferent fibers innervate tactile corpuscles (of Meissner).

Habenula: The habenula is a small protuberance at the dorsocaudal edge of the third ventricle, adjacent to the pineal gland. It consists of a lateral and a medial habenular nucleus (TNA Latin: Nucleus habenularis lateralis and—medialis), and is part of the epithalamus.

B1–B9 cell groups: The serotonergic cell groups B1–B9 (TNA Latin: Cellulae serotonergicae) are largely found within the confines of the raphe nuclei. The raphe nuclei (TNA Latin: Nuclei raphes) form an almost continuous collection of cell groups distributed in the midline of the tegmentum, from the caudal midbrain to the transition of the medulla o...

Illustrated Encyclopedia of Human Neuroanatomy:

This book is unique in that it provides the reader with the most up-to-date terminology used to describe the human nervous system (central and peripheral) and the related sensory organs, i.e., the Terminologia Neuroanatomica (TNA), the official terminology of the IFAA (International Federation of Associations of Anatomists). The book provides a suc...

This paper deals with a recent revision of the terminology of the Sections Central Nervous System (CNS; Systema nervosum centrale) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS; Systema nervosum periphericum) of the Terminologia Anatomica (TA, 1998) and the Terminologia Histologica (TH, 2008). These sections were extensively updated by the Federative Internat...

The brain stem is composed of the midbrain and the hindbrain and is, at least during development, segmentally organized. The midbrain is composed of two segments, known as mesomeres, whereas the hindbrain is composed of eight rhombomeres. The cerebellum arises from the first rhombomere. In this article, the development of the brain stem and the cer...

The two major telencephalic subdivisions are the pallium and the subpallium. The pallium gives rise to the cerebral cortex, whereas the basal ganglia and most cortical interneurons derive from the subpallium. The subpallium includes four developmental domains: the striatum, the pallidum, the diagonal band/basal forebrain area, and the preoptic area...

The diencephalon in its classic, columnar view was divided into four dorsoventrally arranged columns separated by ventricular sulci: the epithalamus, the dorsal thalamus, the ventral thalamus, and the hypothalamus. Extensive embryological studies made it clear that the thalamic ‘columns’ are derived from transversely oriented zones, the prosomeres....

This commentary is on the original article by Jansen et al.

Comparing brains is not a mere intellectual exercise but also helps to understand how the brain enables adaptive behavioral strategies to cope with an ever-changing world and how this complex organ has evolved during the phylogeny. For instance, comparative neurobiology helps understanding the specific features of our species, an issue that attract...

The brain stem is composed of the midbrain (the mesencephalon) and the hindbrain (the rhombencephalon), and is, at least during development, segmentally organized. The midbrain is composed of two temporarily present segments known as mesomeres, whereas the hindbrain is composed of 8, and more recently of 12, rhombomeres. The cerebellum largely aris...

The cerebral cortex can be divided into a large isocortex, a much smaller allocortex (the hippocampal formation and the olfactory cortex) and a transition zone (the mesocortex) in between. Although many individual variations exist in the sulcal pattern and in the extent of the various cortical areas, the remarkable conservation of the pattern of ar...

Many of the mechanisms underlying neural development are basically similar in vertebrates and invertebrates. Among vertebrates, popular species for experimental studies are zebrafish, the South African clawed toad, the chick embryo and mice. In mice, many spontaneously occurring mutations affecting the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum have been d...

Congenital malformations are structural abnormalities due to faulty development, present at birth, and among the major causes of prenatal, perinatal and infant mortality and morbidity. They include gross and microscopic malformations, inborn errors of metabolism, intellectual disability and cellular and molecular abnormalities. About 3 % of newborn...

The development of the human brain and spinal cord may be divided into several phases, each of which is characterized by particular developmental disorders. After implantation, formation and separation of the germ layers occur, followed by dorsal and ventral induction phases, and phases of neurogenesis, migration, organization and myelination. With...

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the development of the human central nervous system (CNS) in the context of its many developmental disorders due to genetic, environmental, and hypoxic/ischemic causes. The introductory chapters give an overview of the development of the human brain and the spinal cord, the mechanisms of development as...

This is the editorial introduction to the Frontiers Research Topic e-book collecting selected papers of the 6th European Conference on Comparative Neurobiology (ECCN6), held in Valencia (Spain) in April 2010. The e-book is available as supplemental resources

The rather small hypothalamus contains a large number of more or less well-defined cell groups that are of utmost importance for preserving the individual and the species. The hypothalamus is involved in a wide variety of functions in the brain and is characterized by numerous connections with practically every major part of the central nervous sys...

During the last decades, there have been tremendous technical developments to study the human central nervous system (CNS) and its connectivity. Modern imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have greatly improved our knowledge of the circuitry of the human CNS. New development...

The cerebral cortex can be divided into a large isocortex or neocortex, a smaller allocortex (the hippocampal formation and the olfactory cortex) and a transition zone (the mesocortex) in between. The heterogeneous allocortex and the mesocortex have been discussed in Chap. 14. The various parts of the neocortex show large variations in the developm...

Almost a century ago, Constantin von Economo observed that in patients with encephalitis lethargica, lesions in the upper brain stem and posterior hypothalamus impaired consciousness. From lesion studies in cats and anatomical data, the idea arose that the brain stem reticular formation is the origin of the ascending reticular activating system (AR...

In this introductory chapter, vascularization of the brain and spinal cord is discussed with examples of the clinical syndromes of arterial or venous occlusions. The advent of neuroimaging has allowed a more precise clinicopathological correlation of ischaemic lesions and infarcts on computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)...

The ear or vestibulocochlear organ is composed of external, middle and inner parts. The external ear consists of the auricle and the external acoustic meatus with the outer layer of the tympanic membrane. The middle ear is formed by the tympanic cavity, the auditory ossicles and the inner layer of the tympanic membrane. The inner ear comprises the...

The basal ganglia are a group of closely connected cell masses, forming a continuum, extending from the telencephalon to the midbrain tegmentum (Sect. 11.2). This complex comprises the striatum (the nucleus caudatus and the putamen, largely separated by the internal capsule), the globus pallidus, the subthalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra. Th...

The somatosensory system has by far the largest number of receptor types of any of the primate sensory systems, including mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, nociceptors and thermoreceptors. The sensation of touch is mainly mediated by mechanoreceptors, but there are a number of other processing channels within the somatosensory system for propriocep...

With the exception of the olfactory and optic nerves, all cranial nerves enter or leave the brain stem. Three of the cranial nerves are purely sensory (I, II and VIII), five are motor (III, IV, VI, XI and XII) and the remaining nerves (V, VII, IX and X) are mixed.

The autonomic nervous system innervates the visceral organs, the glands and the blood vessels. It regulates the internal environment, and it is largely responsible for maintaining normal bodily functions such as respiration, blood pressure and micturition. The peripheral autonomic nervous system consists of two parts, a thoracolumbar or sympathetic...

The motoneurons in the spinal cord and the cranial nerve nuclei of the brain stem innervate the skeletal muscles. They form Sherrington’s ‘final common path’ to the striated muscles for all signals that influence motor behaviour coming from peripheral sensory receptors and from motor centres in the brain stem and the cerebral cortex. The spinal and...

The cerebellum arises from two anatomically and molecularly different proliferative compartments: the cerebellar ventricular zone and the rhombic lip. The protracted development makes the cerebellum vulnerable to a broad spectrum of developmental disorders, of which the more frequent (the Dandy-Walker and related malformations and the pontocerebell...