H. Lee Swanson

University of California, Riverside | UCR · Educational Psychology

The purposes of the current study were to examine the effects of cognitive and reading skills (i.e., working memory [WM], oral language development [OLD], and reading skills) on second language (L2) writing performance as well as the changes in these relationships across different grades among Spanish-speaking children learning English. A battery o...

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The phonological loop of the working memory system plays a key role in language learning. This study examined the trajectories between two dual language learner groups (English Learners [ELs] and Spanish Learners [SLs]) on phonological loop measures in L1 and L2. At Grade 1, children completed a battery of vocabulary and cognitive measures and were...

Proficient writing performance in English requires multiple cognitive skills, which can be particularly challenging for English Learners (ELs). However, compared with reading and mathematics, there have been fewer scientific inquiries that explore the relationship between cognitive components and writing. The purpose of this study was to examine the...

One purpose of this study was to identify cognitive processes within the English (second language [L2]) and Spanish (first language [L1]) language systems that underlie growth in math problem solving among emergent bilingual (EB) children with and without math difficulties (MD). A second purpose was to determine those L1 cognitive processes that pl...

Converging evidence suggests that traditional domain-general working memory (WM) training does not have reliable far-transfer effects, but produces reliable, modest near-transfer effects on structurally similar untrained tasks. Given the critical role of WM in academic development, WM training that incorporates task-specific features may maximize t...

Please use the following link to get a copy of this manuscript. The first 50 copies are complimentary. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200622000394?dgcid=author) Abstract: Dual language learner math vocabulary reading calculation teaching practice Spanish English a b s t r a c t The purpose of this empirical study was 2-fo...

This exploratory study determined the relationship between math instructional activities in Wave (year) 1 and English language learner (ELL) children's math problem‐solving performance in Wave (year) 2. The math performance of ELL children (N = 291) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 was tested in two testing waves. Two major findings emerged. First, strategy i...

Solving word problems in mathematics presents difficulties for many English learners (ELs), including those who use Spanish as a home language. In the early stage of learning to solve mathematics word problems, some children, including ELs, experience difficulties. By English status, EL refers to those children whose home language was Spanish while...

Please use the following link to get a copy of this manuscript. The first 50 copies are complimentary. (https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/KPHGWPB58EJ78C9N4XDT/full?target=10.1080/13670050.2022.2068346) Abstract: We explored the role of three math instructional practices by teachers (explicit instruction, guided practice, peer interaction) in predi...

This study explored the role of growth in the executive components of working memory (WM) on second language (L2) mathematical problem-solving in elementary school children who are emerging bilingualswhose first language (L1) is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 429) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 wereadministered a battery of math, reading, voc...

This meta-analysis assessed the effect of word-problem-solving interventions on the word-problem-solving accuracy of students identified as having a learning disability (LD) or at risk for an LD in kindergarten to the sixth grade. Eighteen randomized control group designed studies met the inclusion criteria. Overall, word-problem-solving interventi...

This meta‐analysis synthesized research on math performance outcomes for English learners (EL) as a function of language‐focused (math vocabulary) interventions. We included group and single‐subject design studies with children from kindergarten to 8th grade (3,766 students for group, 30 for single‐subject). Group studies yielded a mean Hedges’ g o...

An area of mathematics found to be difficult for emergent bilingual children whose first language (L1) is Spanish in the United States is solving mathematical word problems. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between growth in the executive component of working memory (WM) and growth in mathematical word-problem solving in...

This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes among elementary-aged English learning (EL) children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, EL children (N = 267) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory,...

Does the commonly reported math achievement gap among elementary school monolingual and English learners (ELs) with and without math difficulties reflect variations in executive processing? This cohort-sequential study (N = 841) explored the cognitive processes that underlie in elementary school children’s math computational growth who are monoling...

This study investigated the prevalence of latent classes at risk for reading or math disabilities in elementary-age children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children ( N = 394) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures in both Spanish and English. Three important findings oc...

The chapter provides a review as well as an update on a model outlined by Swanson and Siegel (2001a, 2001b) that suggested that specific processes related to the phonological and executive system of working memory (WM) underlie specific learning disabilities in reading and/or math. that specific learning disabilities in reading and/or math reflect...

This cohort-sequential study explored the components of working memory that underlie math calculation in elementary school children who are monolingual (English) or English language learners (ELLs) whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 789) in grades 1, 2, and 3 at wave 1 were administered a battery of math, vocabulary, readin...

This study identified cognitive processes that underlie individual differences in working memory (WM) and mathematical problem-solving accuracy in emerging bilingual children (English learners). A battery of tests was administered in both English and Spanish that assessed problem solving, achievement, and cognitive processing in children in first g...

Cognitive processes that underlie individual differences in mathematical problem-solution accuracy in elementary emerging bilingual children (English Learners) at risk and not at risk for math problem-solving difficulties (MD) were examined. A battery of tests was administered in both English and Spanish that assessed problem-solving, achievement,...

English learners (ELs) experience difficulty with mathematical problem solving because word problems require complex processes beyond basic math skills, such as the use of linguistic information, identifying relevant information, and constructing the appropriate problem statement. This study used a combined multiple baseline design and criterion ch...

This chapter reviews work that provides an empirical foundation for the view that reading disorders (RD) reflect a fundamental deficit in phonological short-term memory (STM) and the executive component of Working Memory (WM). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5) views a Specific Learning Disorder in reading as reflec...

This study examined the cross-sectional structure of working memory (WM) among elementary school English learners (ELs). A battery of WM tasks was administered in Spanish (L1) and English (L2) within five age groups (ages 6, 7, 8, 9, & 10). Confirmatory factor analysis showed a three-factor structure of WM emerged in both L1 and L2 administrations...

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine those components of working memory (WM) that play a significant role in predicting math growth in children who are English language learners (N = 157) with serious math difficulties (MD). Method: A battery of tests was administered in English and Spanish that assessed computation, reading, voca...

This study investigated whether a latent class of children with math difficulties (MD) or math learning disabilities (MLD) emerged within a heterogeneous sample of learners. A latent class analysis was computed on children (N = 447) in Grade 3 who were administered a battery of math, reading, and cognitive measures. The analysis yielded four import...

The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working memory (WM) in the context of three major theories: the domain-specificity theory (debate) of WM, the intrinsic cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate correlation between...

This cohort-sequential study explored the components of working memory (WM) that underlie second language (L2) reading growth in 450 children at risk and not at risk for reading disabilities (RD) whose first language is Spanish. English language learners designated as balanced and nonbalanced bilinguals with and without risk for RD in Grades 1, 2,...

This study investigated the relationship between elementary classroom (N ¼ 50) reading activities in Year 1 and reading performance (i.e., passage comprehension, letter-word identification, and word attack) 1 year later for English language learners (ELLs; N ¼ 270). A cross-classification hierarchical model indicated that compared to other reading...

This study investigates whether age-related changes in the structure of 5 complex working memory (WM) tasks (a) reflect a general or domain specific system, (b) follows a similar trajectory across different age spans, and (c) contribute domain general or domain specific resources to achievement measures. The study parsed the sample (N = 2,471) into...

The purpose of this study was to assess whether the differential effects of working memory (WM) components (the central executive, phonological loop, and visual-spatial sketchpad) on math word problem-solving accuracy in children (N = 413, ages 6-10) are completely mediated by reading, calculation, and fluid intelligence. The results indicated that...

The purpose of this cohort sequential study was to extend previously reported latent transition analyses conducted by Swanson, Kudo, and Guzman-Orth (2016) by determining the role of cognitive measures in identifying English learners (EL) at risk for late emerging reading disabilities (LERD). To this end, EL students (N = 450) in Grades 1, 2, and 3...

The published single-case design (SCD) research (N = 19 articles) on self-monitoring and reading performance was synthesized. The following inclusion criteria were used: (a) the study must have been peer-reviewed, (b) implemented an intervention targeting student self-monitoring of reading skills, (c) included data on at least 1 reading outcome, (d...

This randomized control study investigates the effects of working memory (WM) training on near (similar WM memory tasks) and far (math problem-solving processes and accuracy tasks) transfer in children aged 7 to 11 years who vary in fluid intelligence. Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group or one of two WM training condition...

This study investigated the relationship between teachers' classroom ratings of working memory (WM) and laboratory measures of WM of English language learners (ELLs) in the elementary grades. Multilevel modeling was used to identify whether teacher ratings accurately predicted ELL children's performance on WM tasks. The results indicated that teach...

This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes at risk for reading disabilities (RD) in elementary-aged children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 489) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 were administered a battery of reading, vocabulary, and cognitive measures (short-term memory [STM], working memory...

The purpose of this chapter is to review some of the instructional research completed in our lab related to improving memory performance in children with reading and/or math disabilities. We review studies that focus on (1) the effects of strategy knowledge and strategy training on the working memory (WM) performance as a function of dynamic testin...

A randomized control study investigated the role of strategy instruction on problem-solving solution accuracy in elementary school children with math difficulties MD (N = 162) who varied in working memory capacity (WMC). Comparisons were made of three strategy conditions that combined general (verbal and/or visual heuristics) and specific strategie...

This study determined the working memory (WM) components (executive, phonological short-term memory [STM], and visual–spatial sketchpad) that best predicted mathematical word problem-solving accuracy in elementary schoolchildren (N = 392). The battery of tests administered to assess mediators between WM and problem-solving included measures of doma...

This chapter reviews some of our laboratory research on working memory (WM) in children with normal intelligence who have specific learning disabilities (LD) in reading and/or math. Two general conclusions emerge from this review. First, children with specific LD in reading and/or math are more likely to suffer general WM capacity constraints than...

This chapter honors the contributions of J. P. Das to the assessment of intelligence and diagnosis and treatment of developmental and learning disabilities; it provides an overview of similar research on assessment and instruction for language learning rather than human intelligence, which has been conducted at the University of Washington in colla...

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction and working memory capacity (WMC) on problem solving solution accuracy in children with and without math disabilities (MD). Children in grade 3 (N = 204) with and without MD subdivided into high and low WMC were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: verbal strategies (e.g., underlining ques...

This article synthesizes literature that compares the academic, cognitive, and behavioral performance of children with and without reading disabilities (RD). Forty-eight studies met the criteria for the meta-analysis, yielding 735 effect sizes (ESs) with an overall weighted ES of 0.98. Small to high ESs in favor of children without RD emerged on me...

This study determines whether residual recall differences between reading ability groups after a memory-training task on a sort/recall task reflect the dimensions of organizational processing. Within a theoretical framework that views memory organization as representing independent dimensions (i.e., integrative and elaborative), two experimental ph...

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction on solution accuracy in children with and without serious math difficulties (MD) in problem solving. Children's posttest solution accuracy was compared on standardized and experimental measures as a function of strategy conditions. Strategy conditions included curriculum materials that gradua...

The Working Memory Rating Scale (WMRS) was designed as a behavioral rating tool to assist teachers in identifying students at risk of working memory difficulties. The instrument was originally normed on 417 monolingual English-speaking children from the United Kingdom. The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the WMRS o...

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of English and Spanish working memory (WM) components (the central executive, phonological loop, and visual–spatial sketchpad) within four subgroups of bilingual children: children who are proficient in two languages (additive bilingual), children proficient only in one language of the two la...

The purpose of this study was to examine effectiveness of paraphrasing interventions on mathematics word problem-solving accuracy in third grade children (N = 72) at risk for mathematics disabilities (MD). Three instructional conditions directed students’ attention through paraphrasing, via writing, to different propositions within word problems. S...

Cognitive strategies are important tools for children with math difficulties (MD) in learning to solve word problems. The effectiveness of strategy training, however, depends on working memory capacity (WMC). Thus, children with MD but with relatively higher WMC are more likely to benefit from strategy training, whereas children with lower WMC may...

The purpose of this study was to determine whether cross-sectional and growth effects in second language (L2) literacy are related to the executive component of working memory (WM) and whether inhibition may underlie the links between WM and reading in children whose first language (L1) is Spanish. Elementary school children (grades 1, 2 and 3) wer...

Objective: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood is associated with poor academic functioning. Deficits in academic functioning have proven to be less responsive to intervention than behavioral deficits in this population, yet the causes of this academic underperformance are not well understood. The purpose of this study is...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of explicit, direct, and generative strategy training and working memory capacity (WMC) on mathematical word problem-solving accuracy in elementary schoolchildren. In this study, children in third grade (N = 82) identified as at risk for math difficulties (MD) were randomly assigned (wi...

This study examined whether curriculum-based measures (CBMs) of math word-problem contributed unique variance in predictions of performance on high-stakes tests, beyond the contribution of calculation and reading skills. CBMs were administered to a representative sample of 142 third-grade students at three time points. Results indicate that problem...

This study investigated the role of generative strategies and working memory capacity on word problem solving accuracy in children with math difficulties (MD). Within classrooms, children in Grade 3 with MD (n = 69) were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions: paraphrase question propositions (Restate), paraphrase relevant propositi...

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction and cognitive abilities on word problem solving accuracy in children with math difficulties (MD). Elementary school children (N = 120) with and without MD were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: general-heuristic (e.g., underline question sentence), visual-schematic presentation (diagram...

The present study explored the notion that children of different intellectual abilities vary in their metajudgment when they have partial knowledge. Gifted and average childen rated the likelihood that a protagonist who had knowledge or lack of knowledge about a category of items would remember a particular item of high or low salience. The protago...

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction and working memory capacity (WMC) on word problem solving accuracy in children with (n = 100) and without (n = 92) math difficulties (MD). Within classrooms, children in Grades 2 and 3 were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: verbal-only strategies (e.g., underlining questi...

This study tested the assumption that the development of superordinate relationships activated from semantic memory may be related to the degree to which information is lateralized and strategically processed. Two age groups of children were presented stimulus lists that comprised semantically organized, phonemically organized, or unorganized words...

English language learners (ELLs) struggle with solving word problems for a number of reasons beyond math procedures or calculation challenges. As a result, ELLs may not only need math support but also reading and linguistic support. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a math comprehension strategy called Dynamic Strategic M...

English language learners (ELLs) represent more than 5 million students in K-12 public schools in the United States, of which 75% are Spanish speaking (Planty et al., 2009). The challenges for many ELLs are not only overcoming a language barrier but also achieving academically (Garcia & Cuéllar, 2006). According to The Nations Report Card (National...

This article provides a quantitative synthesis of the published literature on word problem solving intervention studies for children with math disabilities (MD). Seven group and eight single-subject design studies met inclusion criteria. Mean effect sizes (ESs) for solution accuracy for group design studies were 0.95 (SE = .19) for children with MD...

Word problems are a very important part of math curriculum in elementary schools. Unfortunately, many students experience difficulties in solving word problems, especially when the problems increase in complexity. This is a 3-year grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (IES) focused on cognition as it is a...

Synthesizes some of the published literature comparing the cognitive functioning of children with reading disabilities (RD) and children with low reading and low intelligence (low achievers). 19 studies, which yielded 274 effect sizes (ES), indicated that children with reading disabilities outperformed low achievers (LA) on measures of lexical know...

The present study investigated whether (a) growth patterns related to cognitive processing (working memory, updating, inhibition) differed in subgroups of children with reading disabilities (RD) and (b) growth in working memory (executive processing) predicted growth in other cognitive areas, such as reading and math. Seventy-three children (ages 7...

This study explores the cognitive basis of reading disabilities (RDs) in Spanish-speaking children who are learning English as a second language. Children (N = 393) designated as English language learners (ELLs) or bilingual with and without RDs in Grades 1, 2, and 3 were administered a battery of cognitive (short-term memory, working memory, rapid...

This article synthesizes the experimental literature on reading interventions for upper elementary and middle school students identified with reading disabilities on norm‐referenced reading measures. Ten studies (12 independent samples) yielded 70 effect sizes on norm‐referenced reading measures with an aggregated mean of 0.41 (SE= .04) in favor of...

focus is on developing valid ways of measuring successful growth in literacy and cognition in children who are English language learners. This project is important because it provides us with a prospective way to develop accurate and stable assessment tools for the identification of reading difficulties in English language learners. To date, the so...

focus is on developing valid ways of measuring successful growth in literacy and cognition in children who are English language learners. This project is important because it provides us with a prospective way to develop accurate and stable assessment tools for the identification of reading difficulties in English language learners. To date, the so...

This is a 4-year grant funded by U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences whose focus is on developing valid ways of measuring successful growth in literacy and cognition in children who are English language learners. This project is important because it provides us with a prospective way to develop accurate and stable assessmen...

This article has no abstract.

This chapter provides an overview of definitions, assessment procedures, and instructional treatments for children with learning disabilities. A focus is placed on assessment issues related to reading and math disabilities. Also reviewed are potential causes of learning disabilities, as well as some of the controversies (e.g., role of IQ testing, d...

Word problems are a very important part of math curriculum in elementary schools. Unfortunately, many students experience difficulties in solving word problems, especially when the problems increase in complexity. This is a 3-year grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (IES) focused on cognition as it is a...

focus is on developing valid ways of measuring successful growth in literacy and cognition in children who are English language learners. This project is important because it provides us with a prospective way to develop accurate and stable assessment tools for the identification of reading difficulties in English language learners. To date, the so...

This article reviews the results of a meta-analysis of the experimental published literature that compares the academic, cognitive, and behavioral performance of adults with reading disabilities (RD) with average achieving adult readers. The meta-analysis shows that deficits independent of the classification measures emerged for adults with RD on m...

This study examined whether children's growth on measures of fluid (Raven Colored Progressive Matrices) and crystallized (reading and math achievement) intelligence was attributable to domain-specific or domain-general functions of working memory (WM). A sample of 290 elementary school children was tested on measures of intelligence across three te...

Adolescents (ages 14-17) with math disabilities (MD, n=12), reading disabilities (RD, n=19), math+reading disabilities (MD+RD, n=12), and average achievers (n=15) were compared on measures of visual-spatial processing, random generation (inhibition), writing speed, short-term memory (STM), and working memory (WM). Adolescents with MD performed sign...