Gunnar Borg

Stockholm University | SU · Department of Psychology

There are many demands on a good pain-scale. It should be possible to: use for all kinds of pain; determine direct levels of intensity over the total range; treat responses with statistical methods, preferably parametric statistics; study degrees of changes with stimulus intensity, medication and time; make interindividual, intermodal and psychophy...

The measure constant in the psychophysical power equation can have at least 12 distinct referents. These depend upon standardized (SI) units of measurement of the physical stimulus, psychophysical method, group and individual differences in judgment, modality- or quality-specific differences, special sensory/perceptual characteristics, characterist...

Level-anchored ratio scaling, such as the Borg CR10 scale(®) and the Borg CR100 scale(®), uses verbal anchors in congruence with numbers to give ratio data together with natural levels of intensity. This presupposes that the anchors possess natural positions in the subjective dynamic range and also "numerical" inter-relations. In an experiment, sub...

In some sports, as for example in diving, performance is measured as a subjectively evaluated artistic gestalt. The purpose of this study was to compare the traditional scale used in competitive diving with the Borg CR100 scale®, a scale where categorical expressions are placed where they perceptually belong on a ratio scale (e.g., G. Borg and E. B...

This study is the first to apply Borg’s psychophysical equation to measuring responses to strength training with weights machines. Theoretical constructs of Borg’s scales were assessed in younger and older adults to estimate the appropriate load and number of repetitions required to meet recommended practice guidelines. A younger group (YG; 20 male...

The features of perceived symptoms causing discontinuation of strenuous exercise have been scarcely studied. The aim was to characterize the two main symptoms causing the discontinuation of heavy work in healthy persons as well as describe the growth of symptoms during exercise. Breathlessness (b) and leg fatigue (l) were assessed using the Borg CR...

A standardized work test has been performed by healthy subjects, patients with coronary heart disease, patients with arterial hypertension, and with the vasoregulatory asthenia syndrome. Heart frequency and rating of perceived exertion according to a rating method were assessed at various work loads. Different measures of physical working capacity...

BORG, G., BRATFISCH, O. & DORNI'C, S. On the problems of perceived difficulty. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 249–260.–The development and meaning of the concept of “perceived difficulty” is presented. A concise survey of experiments carried out so far is given with regard to the main theoretical, methodological and applied problems at which the inv...

Advantages and drawbacks with different methods for scaling magnitudes of experiences are described. An advantage with "ratio scaling" (according to Stevens) is that it gives possibilities for rough assessments of S-R-functions, but a drawback that it does not function to determine direct ("absolute") levels of intensity. Simple "category rating sc...

Methods of measuring subjective difficulty, effort and other aspects of work-load which have been developed by the author and his colleagues are described, and the use of these methods as means of distinguishing between individuals, and their relationships to psychometric measures, are discussed. Applications are noted to both physical and mental w...

In psychophysical studies of the relation between perceived magnitude and physical stimulus, interest has focused on the preciseness of growth functions. Very little interest has been devoted to natural levels of an "absolute" character and to the validity of direct measurements. In this article, the Category (C)-Ratio (R) (CR) scaling methodology,...

A review is provided of fundamental principles and methods in psychophysical scaling. One main principle is "The Range Model", according to which the total range from a minimum to a maximal value is used as a frame of reference, and the perceptual intensity at a "maximal" physical intensity (e.g., peak performance) is defined as being intersubjecti...

According to the internationally well-known expert i n p erception o f t aste, Linda Bartoshuk, scientists have been u nderestimating the difficulties in interpersonal comparisons. When using scales for r ating intensities of experiences, there is a 'long-standing measurement oversight'. People with g reat differences in their s ensory perceptions...

Principles, methods, and experiments in verbally level-anchored ratio scaling, also called CR-scaling is presented. To the main principles belong: Stevens' "ratio scaling" methods, the Range Model according to Borg; determinations of the size of the subjective dynamic range; quantitative semantics for the selection and placement of verbal anchors;...

The length and intensity of the aftertaste of caffeine was measured in groups of tasters and nontasters in order to determine if any differential information could be provided by aftertaste perception. Results indicate that a period of 4 min is sufficient to see differences between tasters and nontasters, and that nontasters' aftertaste of the satu...

This study examined the effect of load weight, and physical work capacity (PWC) on psychophysical lift ratings of 33 men and 58 women. Each subject lifted seven boxes that ranged in weight from 6.8 kg to 40.9 kg and rated each lift with Borg's CR-10 scale. The lift components were a vertical distance of the hands to the floor of 53 cm, and a vertic...

Seven male tank truck drivers were followed for about 3 h during ordinary work. They rated the perception of heavy work operations on Borg's CR-10 scale. The heart rates were monitored every minute. The hose was pulled out an average of 22.3 m and the corresponding mean rating was 3.2, a little above 'Moderate' on the CR-10 scale. The heart rate av...

Previous research concerning physical exercise has yielded mixed results with regard to the possible influence of the Type A behavior pattern (TABP) on ratings of perceived exertion. However, almost all studies have been performed in the confined space of a laboratory. Few have studied the influence of an individual's behavior pattern outdoors in t...

Subjects sensitive and insensitive to the bitter substance 6- n -propylthiouracil (PROP) judged the taste intensity of sucrose, caffeine, and citric acid, using two procedures: (i) magnitude matching, where magnitude estimates of the two groups of subjects were brought to a common scale by assuming equivalence in judgments of blackness of grey pape...

Perceptual ratings given on the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the Category Ratio Scale (CR-10) were compared in 24 healthy male volunteers (18-39 years) subjected to an exercise test using a bicycle ergometer. Ratings of leg exertion were made by means of the CR-10, the VAS and, as a complementary measure, the method of free magnitude estimation...

Thirty consecutive male patients with angiographically determined multivessel disease and ten healthy volunteers were subjected to a symptom limited exercise test with stepwise increments of 10 W every minute. Leg exertion, breathlessness, and chest pain were rated according to a category-ratio scale with 10 degrees and psychophysical power functio...

Physiological as well as perceptual growth functions may mathematically be described by power functions. The most general form is that proposed by Borg (1, 2): R = a + c (S-b)n, where R is the response and S the stimulus intensity, a is the rest value (or a basic “noise intensity”), which together with the b-value identifies the starting point of t...

The purpose of the study was to determine whether the perception of exertion is affected by alcohol during physical performance and whether altered self-rating of exertion is the result of an altered perception per se or of an altered physical capacity to perform work. Ten healthy men participated. Each subject was his own control and received an a...

In studies on work it is important to assess various subjective symptoms, complaints, and annoyances. To measure such symptoms, psychophysical ratio scales may be used, as along with simpler category rating scales. In this paper some of the basic concepts and methods of psychophysics have been described. In the field of heavy physical work and the...

Problems in interindividual comparisons of perceptual intensities are discussed both from a philosophical and a psychophysical point of view. A theoretical model (the range model) is presented. In this model maximal perceptual intensities are set equal for different individuals in spite of the fact that the corresponding physical intensities may va...

In an analysis of the psychophysical power function of chest pain induced by adenosine, this agent was repeatedly given in increasing doses into a peripheral vein to six healthy volunteers (five men) aged 23–44 years. On the first day the maximum tolerable dose was determined. On the second day seven doses of adenosine (20,30,40,50,60,80 and 100% o...

The purpose of the study was to try to determine a stimulus-response relationship for sinusoidal hand-vibrations rated on Borg's scale. A frequency range of 30–200 Hz, covering commonly used hand-held tools, was studied.The need for perceptual measurements is great, inter alia, in connection with ergonomic analyses of real work situations. The poss...

The purpose of the study was to investigate the manner in which the perceptual apparatus of the body reacts to local vibrations. We also wanted to study the reliability of self-ratings based on Borg's scale in the assessment of hand-arm vibrations of short duration. Thirdly, the study is of ergonomic importance in that it demonstrates the possibili...

In an analysis of the psychophysical power function of chest pain induced by adenosine, this agent was repeatedly given in increasing doses into a peripheral vein to six healthy volunteers (five men) aged 23–44 years. On the first day the maximum tolerable dose was determined. On the second day seven doses of adenosine (20,30,40,50,60,80 and 100% o...

To compare some psychophysiological responses to arm exercise with those to leg exercise, an experiment was carried out on electronically braked bicycle ergometers, one being adapted for arm exercise. Eight healthy males took part in the experiment with stepwise increases in exercise intensity every 4 min: 40—70—100—150—200 W in cycling and 20—35—5...

In two experimental series a panel of observers rated the perceived exertion of a worker performing different tasks. The first experiment involved the lifting of boxes of different weights. The second experiment comprised combined static and dynamic work of the assembly-line type during a full working day. The results show that the observers were a...

Relationships between perceived exertion, heart rate (HR) and blood lactate accumulation (HLa) were studied for three exercise modes: cycling on a bicycle ergometer, walking, and running on a treadmill, using the same group of subjects. The degree of perceived exertion was estimated both on the RPE scale and on a new category-ratio (CR) scale. Ten...

Ten years ago a symposium on physical work and the perception of effort and exertion was held here at the Wenner-Gren Center. I am glad that many of you who took part in that conference also have come today. When we met ten years ago I do not think anyone of us could imagine the great increase in the scientific work and the applications that would...

Several studies have dealt with the problem of how the perception of exertion (PE) grows when the work load increases during an ergometer test. Borg and Dahlström (1959, 1960), Borg (1962, 1972) performed the first studies in the field. In these studies ratio scaling methods developed by S. S. Stevens et al. (1957, 1961) were used, such as ratio es...

Most studies of perceived exertion in sports have dealt with such activities as walking, running, bicycling and swimming. Very few experiments have focused on the perception of exertion in skiing, which is the subject of this study. (For a review see a recent article by Pandolf, 1983).

In physical exercise and various sport activities the perception of exertion gives valuable information about the degree of physical strain as a complement to physiological indicators (Borg, 1962, 1978). Many of the problems listed in my opening address at this symposium (Borg, 1986) are of relevance for studies in sports. Of special interest are t...

This study was designed to show the general increase in perceived exertion, perception of aches or pain in the legs, heart rate (HR), and blood lactate, and the covariance between these variables during bicycle ergometer work, and to describe individual differences both within and between power levels by testing a large group (28 male students). Es...

In ergometry the usual test validations can be complemented by a broader kind of construct and content validation that utilizes information from three different kinds of effort variables, viz, physiological, perceptual, and performance variables. Most importantly, estimates of reliability and validity can be obtained by analyzing the internal consi...

Each of 30 male subjects judged, in a single session, the loudness of a 1000-Hz tone and the exertion perceived while pedaling a bicycle. Two psychophysical methods were used—one employing a combined category-ratio scale whose upper limit was defined as “maximum sensation” and the other a freer magnitude-estimation scale having no verbal labels. Bo...

The purpose of this investigation was to study the relationship between perceptual ratings from Borg's new category-ratio scale and some physiological variables during exercise. To accomplish this, scale ratings were related to blood and muscle lactate accumulation and heart rates during a progressive, maximal exercise test on the cycle ergometer....

Sensations of strain and pain from healthy elbow and knee joints kept in an extreme position were reported on Borg's category-ratio scale (4) by 12 male volunteers in an experimental situation. The purpose of the study was to find out whether passive joint structures give sensations of discomfort and pain when moderately loaded for a certain time i...

Interest in tests of short-term maximal exercise capacity has increased during recent years. The purpose of this investigation was therefore to study how heart rates and ratings of perceived exertion increase during a work test when the subjects only have to exercise at each work load for 0.5 min and to study predictability of maximal performances....

There is a great demand for perceptual effort ratings in order to better understand man at work. Such ratings are important complements to behavioral and physiological measurements of physical performance and work capacity. This is true for both theoretical analysis and application in medicine, human factors, and sports. Perceptual estimates, obtai...

The performance of 12 subjects in a hand steadiness task was compared at different work loads. Hand steadiness expressed in the form of values of hand shakiness was found not to increase linearly with work intensity. On the contrary, the relation between hand shakiness and activation level, induced by physical work, was found to be positively accel...

From a group of 928 randomly allocated women that had undergone mastectomy for cancer, 475 were examined with respect to the somatic sensations and discomfort in the arm on the side of the operation. The women rated psychological variables such as sensations and discomfort according to an 8-degree scale. The variables investigated were: heaviness o...

The perception of pain in three groups of patients with angina pectoris has been studied. All patients went through a bicycle ergometer test with an increase of 10 wat each minute. Heart rates and ratings of pain were collected towards the end of each work load. Reliable results of diagnostic interest were obtained. The rating procedure is discusse...

“Two things make my heart beat faster: walking upstairs and watching pretty girls.”

The aim of this study was to compare the validity of four physical work and performance tests on bicycle ergometers commonly used in Sweden. The following four tests were compared: a) a work test of submaximal character designed for estimation of the maximal oxygen uptake of the individual (Vo2 max); b) a work test of maximal character designed for...

Early studies of subjective force estimates for short-time work on a bicycle ergometer are reviewed. Results showed that perceived pedal resistance followed a positively accelerating function with an exponent of 1.6. A model for inter-individunl comparisons using subjective range as a frame of reference is explained. Results of two experiments comp...

Early studies of subjective force estimates for short time work on a bicycle ergometer are reviewed. Results showed that perceived pedal resistance followed a positively accelerating function with an exponent of 1.6. A model for inter individual comparisons using subjective range as a frame of reference is explained. Results of two experiments comp...

The effect of amphetamine sulphate and amobarbital on maximal physical performance was examined. Each subject underwent on two different occasions a test on a bicycle ergometer, consisting of a series of short intermittent exercises of maximal character, the CSET (Cycling Strength and Endurance Test). The 34 male subjects tested were divided into t...

Perceived exertion during exercise was studied in 51 physically active and in 19 sedentary men, 41-60 years old, by the use of a numerical scale for rating of perceived exertion (RPE). The subjects, who varied in degree of adiposity, each had two or more characteristics associated with the possible development of coronary heart disease. Each man wa...

Two experiments were performed using messages of digits presented auditorily at a rate of two digits per second. In both experiments, messages of seven different lengths were employed, consisting of 4 to 10 digits in Experiment 1, and of 2 to 8 digits in Experiment 2. The Ss were asked to recall them in the original order, and then to estimate the...

1. Recording the summated electrical response from the human chorda tympani in the middle ear provides data for a quantitative study of the relation between the neural activity and the strength of the stimulus applied to the tongue which can be compared with the relation between the subjective estimation and the stimulus strength. 2. Full comparati...

This investigation deals with the reliability and validity of different measurements of importance for the physical working capacity. Some physiological variables, e. g. pulse rate during a work test, have been correlated with each other, with some morphological variables and with an independent external criterion of the physical working capacity i...

Describes (in English) several studies in this field. Using a bicycle ergometer for both short and longer time (6 min.) periods, Ss worked at a standard and then adjusted the power by halving or doubling the setting, as the case may be. In some studies they worked shorter times at the lower settings. Ss for the studies were physicians, students, nu...