Glenn J Tattersall- PhD, University of Cambridge
- Professor (Full) at Brock University
Glenn J Tattersall
- PhD, University of Cambridge
- Professor (Full) at Brock University
About
168
Publications
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Introduction
My primary research interests include the comparative evolutionary physiology of thermoregulation and mechanistic responses to extreme environments in animals. I maintain an active research lab and interact with an array of scientists around the globe. We study thermal biology, physiology, ecology, and evolution, all while employing a range of integrative and/or non-invasive approaches. Many of my research approaches incorporate behavioural and computational approaches.
Current institution
Additional affiliations
January 2001 - December 2002
January 2001 - December 2002
Editor roles
Ecology and Evolutionary Physiology
Position
- Editorial Board Member
Education
September 1994 - March 1999
September 1990 - April 1994
Publications
Publications (168)
The ability to control hydration state is essential for terrestrial species, especially amphibians, which are highly susceptible to dehydration. Here, we examined how temperature (17°C vs. 22°C) influenced behavioral hydroregulation in spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) using a laboratory humidity gradient. Salamanders defended a constant va...
Animals are predicted to shrink and shape‐shift as the climate warms, declining in size, while their appendages lengthen. Determining which types of species are undergoing these morphological changes, and why, is critical to understanding species responses to global change, including potential adaptation to climate warming. We examine body size and...
To decide whether to remain underground or to emerge from overwintering, fossorial ectotherms simultaneously process environmental, gravitational, and circannual migratory cues. Here, we provide an experimental framework to study the behaviour of fossorial ectotherms during soil temperature inversion—a phenomenon that marks the transition between w...
By living underground, fossorial animals may be challenged by limited gas exchange due to prolonged exposure to low oxygen levels (hypoxia) and carbon dioxide buildup (hyper-carbia) in their burrows. The negative effects of hypoxia and hypercarbia generally relate to changes in breathing and energy metabolism. In mammals, reduced metabolic rates ar...
Morphological changes concurrent with climate change are increasingly identified in birds, often through decreasing body size and increasing appendage size. Such changes could have thermoregulatory implications, through the improved surface area to body ratio they provide. Due to the role of bird wings in thermoregulation, wing length relative to b...
Complex or naturalistic enclosures have become increasingly accepted as those best-suited to improve an animal’s welfare. However, designing such enclosures can be difficult if little is known about the animal in the wild, and enclosures that aim to replicate natural habitats must still be assessed to ensure their assumed benefits are realized. The...
Sexual selection is often invoked to explain the evolution of extravagant morphologies, such as antlers and horns. While the focus is typically on the process of exaggeration of these traits, the functional impact of exaggeration remains a topic of debate. One aspect that has been largely overlooked is how exaggerated structures might impact therma...
The Arctic is warming at four times the global average rate and most studies have focused on the indirect (e.g., changes in food web) rather than the direct effects of climate change. However, as Arctic animals often have low capacity to dissipate heat, the direct effect of warming could impact them significantly (heat stress). To study heat stress...
Ectotherms from highly seasonal habitats should have enhanced potential for physiological plasticity to cope with climatic variability. However, whether this pattern is applicable to fossorial ectotherms, who are potentially buffered from thermal variability, is still unclear. Here, we evaluated how seasonal acclimation (spring vs. autumn) in the l...
Amphibians that reproduce in early spring at northern latitudes may encounter environmental ice while migrating to their breeding sites. Due to the nucleation properties of ice, contact with environmental ice may induce rapid freezing of body tissues, which can cause irreversible damage to cells and lead to death. Although some species of salamande...
Complex or naturalistic enclosures have become increasingly accepted as those best-suited to improve an animal’s welfare. However, designing such enclosures can be difficult if little is known about the animal in the wild, and enclosures that perfectly replicate nature must still be assessed to ensure their assumed benefits are realized. Therefore,...
The thermoregulatory system of homeothermic endotherms operates to attain thermal equilibrium, that is no net loss or gain of heat, where possible, under a thermal challenge, and not to attain a set‐point or any other target body temperature. The concept of a set‐point in homeothermic temperature regulation has been widely misinterpreted, resulting...
The ability to control hydration state essential for terrestrial species, especially amphibians, which are highly susceptible to dehydration. Here, we examined how temperature (17°C vs. 22°C) influenced behavioral hydroregulation in spotted salamanders ( Ambystoma maculatum ) using a laboratory humidity gradient. Salamanders defended a constant vap...
Optimal nest site selection is crucial in animals whose offspring are completely dependent on the shelter of a nest. Parental decisions influencing nest thermal conditions are particularly important because temperature strongly influences juvenile activity, metabolism, growth, developmental rate, survival, and adult body size. In small ectotherms s...
Ectotherms from highly seasonal habitats should have enhanced potential for physiological plasticity to cope with climatic variability. However, whether this pattern is applicable to fossorial ectotherms, who are potentially buffered from thermal variability, is still unclear. Here, we evaluated how seasonal acclimatisation (spring vs. autumn) affe...
Animals are predicted to shrink and shape-shift as the climate warms; declining in size, while their appendages lengthen. Determining which types of species are undergoing these morphological changes, and why, is critical to understanding species responses to global change, including potential adaptation to climate warming. We examine body size and...
Mammalian thermoregulatory behaviors such as thermal comfort seeking, physical activity, nesting, and huddling operate alongside autonomic responses such as brown fat thermogenesis and peripheral vasodilation to defend core body temperature (Tb) 1–4 . The defended Tb is not held constant, but alternates across active/rest and behavioral cycles 5–9...
Changes to body size and shape have been identified as potential adaptive responses to climate change, but the pervasiveness of these responses has been questioned. To address this, we measured body and appendage size from 5013 museum bird skins of 78 ecologically and evolutionary diverse Australian species. We found that morphological change is a...
Morphological abnormalities in amphibians are commonly associated with anthropogenic activity, although little baseline information on the prevalence of abnormalities in uncontaminated environments exist. Here, we leverage a 12-year study of spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw, 1802)) in an uncontaminated ecosystem in Algonquin Provincia...
Temperature seasonality plays a pivotal role in shaping the thermal biology of ectotherms. However, we still have a limited understanding of how ectotherms maintain thermal balance in the face of varying temperatures, especially in fossorial species. Due to thermal buffering underground, thermal ecology theory predicts relaxed selection pressure ov...
Unidimensional measurements for estimating bill size, like length and width, are commonly used in ecology and evolution, but can be criticised due to issues with repeatability and accuracy. Furthermore, formula‐based estimates of bill surface area tend to assume uniform bill shapes across species, which is rarely the case. 3D surface scanning can p...
Mounting evidence suggests that temperature seasonality plays a pivotal role in shaping the thermal biology of ectotherms. However, we still have a limited understanding of how amphibians maintain thermal balance in the face of varying temperatures, especially in fossorial species. Due to thermal buffering underground, theory predicts relaxed selec...
In this note, we describe the rare behaviour of self-directed toe-biting observed in captive Pogona vitticeps. While housed in a laboratory, P. vitticeps were observed using time-lapse cameras at several different points in time over 2 years. This behaviour occurred in individually-housed lizards in both juveniles and adults, and in rare instances,...
In this note, we describe the rare behaviour of toe-biting observed in captive Pogona vitticeps. This behaviour occurred in individually-housed lizards in both juveniles and adults, and in rare instances, resulted in the loss of several toes. Toe-biting was associated with loose substrates, hot substrates, and periods of ecdysis. In form, this beha...
Endotherms use their appendages—such as legs, tails, ears and bills—for thermoregulation by controlling blood flow to near-surface blood vessels, conserving heat when it is cold, and dissipating heat in hot conditions. Larger appendages allow greater heat dissipation, and appendage sizes vary latitudinally according to Allen's rule. However, little...
Changes to body size and shape have been identified as potential adaptive responses to climate change, but the pervasiveness of these responses is questioned. To address this, we measured body and appendage size from 5013 museum bird skins of ecologically and evolutionary diverse species. We found that morphological change is a shared response to c...
An animal's boldness is generally considered to be influenced by genetic and developmental factors. However, abiotic factors such as temperature have profound effects on the physiology of ectothermic animals, and thus can influence the expression and measurement of this behavioural trait. We examined the relationship between temperature and behavio...
Body temperature regulation under changes in ambient temperature involves adjustments in heat production and heat exchange rates between the animal and the environment. One mechanism involves the modulation of the surface temperature of specific areas of the body through vasomotor adjustment. In homeotherms, this thermoregulatory adjustment is esse...
The star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) is renowned for its densely innervated 22 appendage star-like rostrum ('star') specialised for tactile sensation. As a northerly distributed insectivorous mammal exploiting aquatic and terrestrial habitats, these vascularized nasal rays are regularly exposed to cold water and thermally conductive soil, leadi...
Nest site selection is a crucial decision for bees because where mothers construct their nests influences the developmental environment of their offspring. Small carpenter bees ( Ceratina calcarata ) nest in sun or shade, suggesting that maternal decisions about nest sites are influenced by thermal conditions that influence juvenile growth and surv...
Reproduction entails a trade-off between short-term energetic costs and long-term fitness benefits. This is especially apparent in small endotherms that exhibit high mass-specific metabolic rates and live in unpredictable environments. Many of these animals use torpor, substantially reducing their metabolic rate and often body temperature to cope w...
The star-nosed mole ( Condylura cristata ) is well known for its unique star-like rostrum (‘star’) which is formed by 22 nasal appendages highly specialised for tactile sensation. As a northerly distributed insectivorous mammal occupying both aquatic and terrestrial habitats, this sensory appendage is regularly exposed to cold water and thermally c...
Body temperature regulation in the face of changes in ambient temperature and/or in metabolic heat production involves adjustments in heat exchange rates between the animal and the environment. One of those mechanisms include the modulation of the surface temperature of specific areas of the body through vasomotor adjustment and blood flow control,...
The primary purpose of this study was to examine whether 2D:4D ratios (a putative measure of prenatal androgen exposure) could be determined using participant-submitted hand images. The secondary purpose was to examine whether 2D:4D ratio was associated with pro-environmental behaviors, attitudes, and empathy, given the recent literature linking se...
Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light has both physiological benefits as well as costs. Many lepidosaur reptiles can behaviorally self-regulate their exposure to UV light in order to take advantage of the benefits of UV light while minimizing the costs. Furthermore, lepidosaur scales have been conceptualized by some as a barrier to the penetration of...
Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules state that endotherms should be larger and have shorter appendages in cooler climates. However, the drivers of these rules are not clear. Both rules could be explained by adaptation for improved thermoregulation, including plastic responses to temperature in early life. Non-thermal explanations are also plausible as cli...
Vocal emission requires coordination with the respiratory system. Monitoring the increase in laryngeal pressure, needed for vocal production, allows detection of transitions from quiet respiration to vocalization-supporting respiration. Characterization of these transitions could be used to identify preparation for vocal emission and to examine the...
Many animal appendages, such as avian beaks and mammalian ears, can be used to dissipate excess body heat. Allen’s rule, wherein animals in warmer climates have larger appendages to facilitate more efficient heat exchange, reflects this. We find that there is widespread evidence of ‘shape-shifting’ (changes in appendage size) in endotherms in respo...
Fever and hypothermia are well-characterized components of systemic inflammation. However, our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying such changes in body temperature is largely limited to rodent models and other mammalian species. In mammals, high dosages of an inflammatory agent (e.g., lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) typically leads to hypothermia (dec...
Naked mole-rats are among the most hypoxia-tolerant mammals. During hypoxia, their body temperature (T b) decreases via unknown mechanisms to conserve energy. In small mammals , non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) is critical to T b regulation; therefore, we hypothesize that hypoxia decreases naked mole-rat BAT thermogenesis....
Temperate ectotherms have responded to recent environmental change, likely due to the direct and indirect effects of temperature on key life cycle events. Yet, a substantial number of ectotherms are fossorial, spending the vast majority of their lives in subterranean microhabitats that are assumed to be buffered against environmental change. Here,...
Many animal appendages, such as avian beaks and mammalian ears, can be used to dissipate excess body heat. Allen’s rule, wherein animals in warmer climates have larger appendages to facilitate more efficient heat exchange, reflects this. We find that there is widespread evidence of ‘shape-shifting’ (changes in appendage size) in endotherms in respo...
Thermal biology research compares field with laboratory data to elucidate the evolution of temperature-sensitive traits in ectotherms. The hidden challenge of many of these studies is discerning whether animals actively thermoregulate, since motivation is not typically assessed. By studying the behaviours involved in thermoregulation, we can better...
Whether scales reduce cutaneous evaporative water loss in lepidosaur reptiles (Superorder Lepidosauria) such as lizards and snakes has been a contentious issue for nearly half a century. Furthermore, while many studies have looked at whether dehydration affects thermal preference in lepidosaurs, far fewer have examined whether normally hydrated lep...
In vertebrates, changes in surface temperature following exposure to an acute stressor are thought to be promising indicators of the physiological stress response that may be captured noninvasively by infrared thermography. However, the efficacy of using stress-induced changes in surface temperature as indicators of physiological stress-responsiven...
Regulating body temperature is a critical function for many animals. Ectotherms use multiple thermoregulatory behaviours, including habitat selection, sunshade shuttling, posture, orientation, gaping, and panting. According to thermoregulatory control theory, gaping and postural behaviours should act in coordination with microhabitat selection, pro...
Infrared thermography is increasingly emerging as an analytical approach within the thermal ecology research community, providing unique and rapid temperature information crucial to understanding how plants and animals exchange heat with their environment. What is difficult to appreciate are the numerous ways in which thermography may still yield i...
Giant tortoises are widely cited as the “largest extant terrestrial ectotherms on Earth.” Yet Galapagos tortoises span a range of body mass over four orders of magnitude, from 50-g hatchlings to 300-kg adults. A model of heat balance in Galapagos tortoises, validated with field data, indicates that small tortoises with low thermal inertia will be s...
Behavioural flexibility allows ectotherms to exploit the environment to govern their metabolic physiology, including in response to environmental stress. Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) is a widespread environmental toxin that can lethally inhibit metabolism. However, H 2 S can also alter behaviour and physiology, including a hypothesized induction of hib...
Small carpenter bees ( Ceratina calcarata Robertson) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) build their nests in both sunny and shady sites, so maternal decisions about nest sites influence the thermal environment experienced by juveniles throughout development. A previous study demonstrated that when larvae and pupae were raised in the laboratory at room temperatu...
Temperate snakes occupy overwintering sites for most of their annual life cycle. Microhabitat characteristics of the hibernaculum are largely undescribed yet are paramount in ensuring snake overwintering survival. We hypothesized that snakes survive hibernation within a vertical subterranean space that we termed a “life zone” (LZ), that is aerobic,...
Infrared thermal imaging is a passive imaging technique that captures the emitted radiation from an object to estimate surface temperature, often for inference of heat transfer. Infrared thermal imaging offers the potential to detect movement without the challenges of glare, shadows, or changes in lighting associated with visual digital imaging or...
Protective clothing is essential for human existence in the Arctic, and caribou-skin clothing has played a pivotal role for millennia. Although people with northern experience often extol caribou-skin clothing, few scientific studies have investigated its properties. We used infrared thermal imaging in a pilot study to compare authentic caribou-ski...
Behavioural flexibility allows ectotherms to exploit the environment to govern their metabolic physiology, including in response to environmental stress. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a widespread environmental toxin that can lethally inhibit metabolism. However, H2S can also alter behaviour and physiology, including a hypothesised induction of hiberna...
Macrophysiological analyses are useful to predict current and future range limits and improve our understanding of endotherm macroecology, but such analyses too often rely on oversimplifications of endothermic thermoregulatory and energetic physiology, which lessens their applicability. We detail some of the major issues with macrophysiological ana...
Altricial mammals begin to independently thermoregulate during the first few weeks of postnatal development. In wild rodent populations, this is also a time of high mortality (50-95%), making the physiological systems that mature during this period potential targets for selection. High altitude (HA) is a particularly challenging environment for sma...
Naked mole-rats are among the most hypoxia-tolerant mammals but have a poor thermoregulatory capacity due to their lack of insulating fur and fat, and small body size. In acute hypoxia, naked mole-rat body temperature (Tb) decreases to ambient temperature (Ta) but the mechanisms that underlie this thermoregulatory response are unknown. We hypothesi...
The capability of animals to alter their behaviour in response to novel or familiar stimuli, or behavioural flexibility, is strongly associated with their ability to learn in novel environments. Reptiles are capable of learning complex tasks and offer a unique opportunity to study the relationship between visual proficiency and behavioural flexibil...
Many ideas have been put forward for the adaptive value of the cassowary casque; and yet, its purpose remains speculative. Homeothermic animals elevate body temperature through metabolic heat production. Heat gain must be offset by heat loss to maintain internal temperatures within a range for optimal performance. Living in a tropical climate, cass...
Thermal ecology and cryptic behaviour of a gravid Massasauga.
We discovered a previously undescribed orbital lipid depot in the 13-lined ground squirrel during the first ever magnetic resonance image (MRI) of this common experimental model of mammalian hibernation. In animals housed at constant ambient temperatures (5°C or 25°C, 12h L:12h D photoperiod) the volume of this depot increased in the autumn and dec...
Social context can impact how animals respond to changes in their physical environment. We used an aggressive, amphibious fish, the mangrove rivulus (Kryptolebias marmoratus) with environmentally determined sociality to test the hypothesis that social interactions would push fish to their thermal limits. We capitalized on the propensity of rivulus...
Animals infected by parasites or pathogens can exhibit altered behaviours that may reduce the costs of infection to the host or represent manipulations which benefit the parasite. Given that temperature affects many critical physiological processes, changes in thermoregulatory behaviours are an important consideration for infected hosts, especially...
Vertebrates use the blood vascular system to moderate the temperature of specific anatomical regions. However, in many groups, such as birds, fundamental thermoregulatory mechanisms—the actual link between physiological function (heating and cooling) and the underlying vascular “plumbing”—have largely remained obscure, challenging our understanding...
Sensing environmental temperature is a key factor allowing individuals to maintain thermal homeostasis via thermoregulatory mechanisms, including changes to skin blood flow. Among transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, TRPV3 is a heat-activated cation channel highly expressed in keratinocytes. However, the role of TRPV3 in triggering heat-evo...
Darwin's finches have been the focus of intense study demonstrating how climatic fluctuations coupled with resource competition drive the evolution of a variety of bill sizes and shapes. The bill, as other peripheral surfaces, also plays an important role in thermoregulation in numerous bird species. The avian bill is vascularized, while limbs have...
The regulation of body temperature is a critical function for animals. Although reliant on ambient temperature as a heat source, reptiles, and especially lizards, make use of multiple voluntary and involuntary behaviors to thermoregulate, including postural changes in body orientation, either toward or away from solar sources of heat. This thermal...
Sexual selection has been widely explored from numerous perspectives, including behavior, ecology, and to a lesser extent, energetics. Hormones, and specifically androgens such as testosterone, are known to trigger sexual behaviors. Their effects are therefore of interest during the breeding period. Our work investigates the effect of testosterone...
Diet profoundly influences the behaviour of animals across many phyla. Despite this, most laboratories employing model organisms, such as Drosophila, use multiple, different, commercial or custom-made media for rearing their animals. In addition to measuring growth, fecundity and longevity, we employed several behavioural and physiological assays t...
The avian bill is a textbook example of how evolution shapes morphology in response to changing environments. Bills of seed-specialist finches in particular have been the focus of intense study demonstrating how climatic fluctuations acting on food availability drive bill size and shape. The avian bill also plays an important but under-appreciated...
This study aimed to examine thermoregulatory responses in birds facing two commonly experienced stressors, cold and fasting. Logging devices allowing long-term and precise access to internal body temperature were placed within the gizzards of ducklings acclimated to cold (CA) (5°C) or thermoneutrality (TN) (25°C). The animals were then examined und...
Infrared thermography is a non-invasive technique that measures mid to long-wave infrared radiation emanating from all objects and converts this to temperature. As an imaging technique, the value of modern infrared thermography is its ability to produce a digitized image or high speed video rendering a thermal map of the scene in false colour. Sinc...
With some notable exceptions, small ectothermic vertebrates are incapable of endogenously sustaining a body temperature substantially above ambient temperature. This view was challenged by our observations of nighttime body temperatures sustained well above ambient (up to 10°C) during the reproductive season in tegu lizards (~2 kg). This led us to...
This study aimed to examine thermoregulatory responses in birds facing two commonly experienced stressors, cold and fasting. Logging devices allowing long-term and precise access to internal body temperature were placed within the gizzards of ducklings acclimated to cold (CA) (5°C) or thermoneutrality (TN) (25°C). The animals were then examined und...
This study aimed to examine thermoregulatory responses in birds facing two commonly experienced stressors, cold and fasting. Logging devices allowing long-term and precise access to internal body temperature were placed within the gizzards of ducklings acclimated to cold (CA) (5°C) or thermoneutrality (TN) (25°C). The animals were then examined und...
The neuropeptide proctolin plays important roles as both a neurohormone and a co-transmitter in arthropod neuromuscular systems. We used third-instar Drosophila larvae as a model system to differentiate synaptic effects of this peptide from its direct effects on muscle contractility, to determine whether proctolin can work in a cell-selective manne...
Amphibious fishes often emerse (leave water) when faced with unfavourable water conditions. How amphibious fishes cope with the risks of rising water temperatures may depend, in part, on the plasticity of behavioural mechanisms such as emersion thresholds. We hypothesized that the emersion threshold is reversibly plastic and thus dependent on recen...
The present study determined whether EEG and/or EMG recordings could be used to reliably define activity states in the Brazilian black and white tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae) and then examined the interactive effects of temperature and activity states on strategies for matching O2 supply and demand. In a first series of experiments, the rate of...
This study was designed to determine the manner in which metabolism is suppressed during dormancy in black and white tegu lizards (Tupinambis merianae). To this end, heart rate (f H), respiration rate (f R), and deep body temperature (T b) were continuously monitored in outdoor enclosures by radio-telemetry for nine months. There was a continuous d...
Previous research has demonstrated that dehydration increases the threshold temperature for panting and decreases the thermal preference of lizards. Conversely, it is unknown whether thermoregulatory responses like shuttling and gaping are similarly influenced. Shuttling, as an active behavioural response, is considered one of the most effective th...
Bumblebees are facultative endotherms, having the ability to elevate thorax temperature above ambient temperature by elevating metabolism. Here, we investigated the influence of hypoxia on metabolic demands and thermoregulatory capabilities of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris. We measured thorax temperature, rates of oxygen consumption and carbon di...
We examined body temperature (Tb) of rats during acclimation to cold and/or hypoxia•Cold and hypoxia acclimated rats had lower Tb than hypoxia or cold acclimated rats•Ultradian Tb variations exhibit daily rhythm and increase during cold exposure•Hypoxia supressed daily variations in Tb and in the ultradian variations in Tb•Acclimation length and am...
Many temperate animals spend half their lives in a non-active, overwintering state, and multiple adaptations have evolved to enable winter survival. One notable vertebrate model is Chrysemys picta whose hatchlings display dichotomous overwintering strategies: some hatchlings spend their first winter aquatically after nest emergence in fall, while o...
Across taxa, the early rearing environment contributes to adult morphological and physiological variation. For example, in birds, environmental temperature plays a key role in shaping bill size and clinal trends across latitudinal/thermal gradients. Such patterns support the role of the bill as a thermal window and in thermal balance. It remains un...
Rattlesnakes use their facial pit organs to sense external thermal fluctuations. A temperature decrease in the heat-sensing membrane of the pit organ has the potential to enhance heat flux between their endothermic prey and the thermal sensors, affect the optimal functioning of thermal sensors in the pit membrane and reduce the formation of thermal...
Gas exchange in animals is ultimately diffusion based, generally occurring across dedicated respiratory organs. In many aquatic amphibians, however, multiple modes of gas exchange exist, allowing for the partitioning of O2 uptake and CO2 excretion between respiratory organs with different efficiencies. For example, due to the physical properties of...
Questions
Questions (10)
I am looking for suggestions for interesting research papers for a seminar course on Biology of Sensory Systems. You may suggest your own papers, as I would like to assemble a list of possible research papers to a class of 20 senior biology students who have a background in physiology, neurobiology, or cell biology.
The course could cover cellular mechanisms or behavioural evidence for how animals sense the environment. Possible topics would be olfaction, thermosensation, photosensitivity, mechanosensation, nociception, UV detection, magnetoreception....to name a few. The course will not cover aspects of central processing or perception of sensory information within the CNS.
Suggestions welcomed!
As the question states, I was curious if there is any research into toxicity or developmental effects of applying Mosquiron to aquatic habitats on non-target species, in particular amphibians or fish.
