Euclid Seeram

• PhD., MSc., BSc., FCAMRT. Active member of the Canadian Radiation Protection Association
• University of Canberra

This chapter outlines the essentials of eight applications of AI in medical imaging. These include radiology workflow, computer-aided detection/diagnosis, radiomics, imaging biobanks, disease detection and classification, dose optimization, structured reporting, and image processing.

This chapter provides a brief orientation to the nature of artificial intelligence (AI) and its applications in medical imaging technology. Firstly, definitions of AI and its subfields, machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) are essential ingredients for understanding clinical applications. Secondly, the major features of AI, ML, and DL are d...

This chapter offers a comprehensive exploration of deep learning principles, spanning neural networks such as CNNs, RNNs, autoencoders, GANs, and attention mechanisms. It delves into CNN specifics for image classification, covering layers, filter sizes, activation maps, and transitions. Crucial topics such as dropout, regularization, transfer learn...

This chapter outlines the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in computed tomography (CT) image reconstruction. First, the major components of a CT scanner are noted followed by a review of two image reconstruction algorithms, namely, the filtered back projection algorithm and iterative reconstruction (IR) algorithms, and their limitations...

This chapter addresses the major elements of computer-aided detection (CADe) and computer-aided diagnosis (CADx). In particular, the main stages of a CAD system are reviewed followed by a brief description of the major elements characteristic of a deep learning-based CAD system, highlighting three components are essential in order to provide a usef...

This chapter explores the horizon of possibilities and challenges that define the future of AI in medical imaging. It unfolds a comprehensive exploration of recent breakthroughs in AI for medical imaging, showcasing how cutting-edge technologies are reshaping the diagnostic landscape. From the advent of explainable AI to the promise of federated le...

This chapter delves into the realm of medical image manipulation and comprehension. It begins by exploring pre-processing techniques, illuminating methodologies for noise reduction and image enhancement. Moving on, the chapter uncovers segmentation methods designed to extract pivotal regions of interest, followed by a comprehensive study on feature...

This chapter delves into the crucial ethical and regulatory aspects surrounding AI in healthcare. It navigates through the regulatory frameworks, such as FDA regulations, UK’s Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), and global agencies that govern AI’s integration into healthcare. The chapter explores the concerns regarding priv...

This chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare. Beginning with an introduction to AI, it defines its applications in healthcare, emphasizing its pivotal role. Tracing the historical evolution of AI, the chapter offers insights into machine learning and deep learning. Focusing on clinical decision sup...

This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of machine learning, covering supervised learning techniques such as linear regression and decision trees, with applications in medical image analysis. Unsupervised learning is explored, emphasizing clustering algorithms such as k-means and hierarchical clustering for pattern identification in medical...

This chapter aims to provide a foundation for understanding the subsequent chapters in this book. First, six x-ray imaging modalities are reviewed briefly, including film-screen radiography, computed radiography, flat-panel digital radiography, digital fluoroscopy, and computed tomography. Second, radiation physics principles and concepts related t...

This chapter presents a concise review of key elements in healthcare informatics, with a specific focus on imaging informatics. These topics range from information technology which includes two components, namely, computer technology and communications technology. Both technologies are integral to imaging informatics, a specialized field in medical...

This chapter first introduces three characteristics of a digital image, including the matrix, the pixel, and the bit depth. Three important descriptors in digital image quality are spatial resolution, contrast resolution, and noise. While spatial resolution refers to the imaging system to show detail or sharpness, contrast resolution describes the...

This chapter explores the essence of artificial intelligence (AI) and its applications in medical imaging. Initially, it introduces the definitions of AI and its subsets, machine learning (ML), and deep learning (DL), followed by a brief overview of how ML and DL work. Finally, it outlines applications in medical imaging, incorporating a case study...

This chapter outlines the fundamental elements of quality control (QC) integral to X-ray imaging system performance. It commences with explicit definitions of three key terms: quality assurance, quality control, and continuous quality improvement. Following this, the chapter elucidates general concepts in an X-ray imaging QC program, encompassing t...

This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental physical principles and technology of computed radiography (CR). It begins by discussing the limitations of traditional film screen radiography (FSR). Following that, the major system components of a CR imaging system are outlined. This is succeeded by a brief explanation of the physics involved...

This chapter outlines fundamental radiation protection principles and concepts essential for biomedical engineering technology. First, it identifies the bioeffects of exposure to ionizing radiation, encompassing stochastic and deterministic effects. Second, it describes the radiation protection framework of the International Commission on Radiologi...

Flat-panel digital radiography (FPDR) involves the use of a flat-paned detector (FPD) and a host computer to generate a digital image that is used for diagnostic interpretation. The major components of the FPD are an active-matrix detector and associated electronics such as preamplifiers, switching control, central logic circuits, the ADCs, and int...

This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental elements of fluoroscopy, including a definition and the image intensifier tube. It distinguishes between image intensifier-based digital fluoroscopy and flat-panel digital fluoroscopy. Fluoroscopy produces dynamic images of anatomical structures using a special tube called the image intensifier....

Radiation physics is an essential subject in medical imaging technologies using ionizing radiation, as it explains the principles and concepts relating to how X-rays are generated (X-ray generation), how X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube (X-ray production), the emission of X-rays from the X-ray tube (X-ray emission), and how X-rays interact with...

Computed tomography (CT) stands as a technical and complex diagnostic imaging modality. Radiologic technologists are entrusted with a profound understanding of the technology to optimize dose and image quality and deliver excellent patient care. This article examines the essential physical principles and technical aspects of CT, including the physi...

The first clinically useful Computed tomography (CT) scanner was invented by Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield in England. Later Hounsfield and Alan Cormack working in South Africa shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology [1]. CT has better contrast resolution compared to digital radiography since it uses a computer to process attenuation dat...

As reviewed in Chap. 1, optimization is a radiation protection principle, first provided by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) [1] and now is a mandatory requirement of various radiation protection organizations around the world. In summary, during the conduct of the examination, optimization entails not only adjusting t...

Biological effects of radiation exposure are sometimes referred to as health effects, harmful effects, or simply radiation risks. These effects have been studied extensively and documented in what is popularly known as epidemiologic studies [1]. These studies have identified several sources which have been placed into the following classes: Early r...

Research is based on science (a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry) and is conducted using the “scientific method” [1]. There are at least four primary tasks in research, based on the scientific method, namely; identification of a problem, data collection to help answer the question posed by the problem, data analysis...

Digital Radiography (DR) imaging systems fall into two popular imaging modalities, namely; computed radiography (CR), and flat-panel digital radiography (FPDR). These systems have been described in detail in the literature [1–3]. Furthermore, the major system components and processes common to of each these two systems were illustrated in Fig. 1.1...

The introduction of CT imaging in 1970s in medicine and specifically in diagnostic imaging has provided numerous clinical benefits in the detection, evaluation and diagnosis of human diseases. Hricak et al. [1] have shown that the growth and technical advances have resulted in more effective surgical treatments and have resulted in eliminating the...

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

This book serves as a supplement to the book ‘Digital Radiography: Physical Principles and Quality Control, 2nd Edition (ISBN 978-981-13-3243-2)’ published by Springer Nature in 2019. This book includes review questions of multiple choices, true/false and short answer formats based on the chapters of the already published book along with their answ...

Research in medical imaging technologies (radiography, nuclear medicine, and magnetic resonance imaging) and radiation sciences (radiation therapy) is an evolving area of study in diagnostic radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy.

In Chap. 1, the nature and scope of research were outlined and included an overview of quantitative and qualitative research and a brief description of research designs. In this chapter, both quantitative and qualitative research will be described in a little more detail with respect to essential features and characteristics. Furthermore, the resea...

The purpose of this chapter is to identify and describe briefly the eight examples of research studies published in the medical imaging literature, with a focus on the steps of conducting research described in this textbook. In this regard, therefore, the research studies identified will first state the title of the research and outline briefly eac...

This book addresses essential principles of research according to the scientific method for medical imaging technology research. The scope of this book covers the nature of scientific research; quantitative and qualitative approaches essentials; research planning; literature review fundamentals; research methods; data collection, analysis, and inte...

Background Current image reconstruction techniques in computed tomography (CT) such as filtered back-projection (FBP) and iterative reconstruction (IR) have limited use in low-dose CT imaging due to poor image quality and reconstruction times not fit for clinical implementation. Hence, with the increasing need for radiation dose reductions in CT, t...

Background and purpose: The use of AI in the process of CT image reconstruction may improve image quality of resultant images and therefore facilitate low-dose CT examinations. Methods: Articles in this review were gathered from multiple databases (Google Scholar, Ovid and Monash University Library Database). A total of 17 articles regarding AI...

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

Before attempting to answer these review questions, read the following:

This chapter described the major system components and technologies related to picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) used in medical imaging. First a definition of PACS is provided followed by a brief description of the major components of a PACS. Several definitions have been cited in the chapter. One such definition is that PACS is f...

This is the second edition of a well-received book that enriches the understanding of radiographers and radiologic technologists across the globe, and is designed to meet the needs of courses (units) on radiographic imaging equipment, procedures, production, and exposure. The book also serves as a supplement for courses that address digital imaging...

The purpose of this chapter is to present a brief description of digital tomosynthesis, a three-dimensional (3D) imaging technique that overcomes the problems of conventional two-dimensional (2D) tomography. The technique involves image acquisition, image reconstruction, and image display and communication. While image acquisition is such that the...

This chapter addressed essential features of the international standardized EI for DR imaging systems. First, two “old” propriety scales for the EI, the inverse scale and the proportional scale, were reviewed briefly followed by an outline of a generalized method for determining the EI. The next topic described are three conditions for the IEC stan...

This chapter describes the essential physics and technical considerations of computed radiography (CR). Firstly, a brief history of CR is reviewed including terms synonymous with CR, followed by a description of three main processes involved in CR including image acquisition, image processing, and image display, storage, and communication. Secondly...

The technical aspects of flat-panel digital radiography (FPDR) systems are described in detail in this chapter. The essential elements of these detectors include a definition of FPDR, system components, types of FPDR systems, design characteristics, operational principles, image processing, and imaging performance characteristics, as well as image...

This chapter provides a broad overview of the elements of digital radiography (DR). First a definition of digital radiography is presented followed by a brief review of the essential underlying principles of film-screen radiography (F-SR) including its limitations. Secondly, the major components of digital radiography imaging systems are briefly ou...

This chapter explored the ICRP’s principle of optimization, optimization of the exposure technique factors [kilovolts (kV) and milliampere-seconds (mAs)] used in a digital radiography examination, including the exposure indicator (EI). Secondly, dose optimization tools for image quality assessment were outlined, specifically the method of visual gr...

Fluoroscopy is an imaging modality that shows anatomical structures and the motion of organs and the movement of contrast media in blood vessels and organs with the goal of obtaining functional information. It has evolved from conventional fluoroscopy recording images on film to current digital fluoroscopy (DF) in which digital dynamic images are o...

Imaging informatics (II) has replaced the term medical imaging informatics (MI) and is now commonplace in the imaging community. The Society of Imaging Informatics in Medicine (SIIM) states that the “science of imaging informatics is the study and application of processes of information and communications technology for the acquisition, manipulatio...

This chapter outlines the essential concepts of digital image processing which is now prevalent in digital radiography departments. A definition of digital image processing is first introduced followed by a brief historical development leading to its use in medical imaging. Image formation and representation are reviewed through a description of th...

Mammography is defined as radiography of the breast. Digital mammography (DM) or full-field digital mammography (FFDM) has become commonplace in medical imaging departments. FFDM overcomes the limitations of film-screen mammography (FSM). Two major limitations include a limited dynamic range, and that the display characteristics such as brightness...

Continuous quality improvement is a process to ensure that every employee plays a role in ensuring a quality product, and it includes two major elements, quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC). While QA primarily deals with the administrative aspects of patient care and quality outcomes, QC addresses the more technical aspects of equipment...

Computed tomography (CT) is a technical and complex diagnostic imaging modality. Radiologic technologists must understand the technology well enough to optimize dose and image quality and provide excellent patient care. This article reviews essential physical principles and technical aspects of CT, including physics related to radiation attenuation...

Purpose: To investigate a technique for optimizing radiation dose and image quality for a computed radiography system. Methods: Entrance skin doses were measured for phantom models of the pelvis and lumbar spine imaged using the vendor's recommended exposure settings (ie, the reference doses) as well as doses above and below the vendor's recomme...

Digital tomosynthesis is a relatively novel imaging modality using limited angle tomography to provide 3D imaging. The purpose of this review is to compare the sensitivity of digital tomosynthesis of the chest and plain film chest imaging in accurately identifying pulmonary nodules and to compare the effective dose between standard chest examinatio...

Use of computed tomography (CT) as a medical diagnostic imaging tool has increased in recent decades because of its technical advances in data acquisition speed and image reconstruction technology. The increased reliance on CT was accompanied by increased patient exposure to ionizing radiation, however, and concerns among radiologic professionals a...

This article describes the essential elements of the new standardized exposure indicator (EI) established by the International Electrotechnical Commission for digital radiography systems. First, a review of the limitations of the narrow exposure latitude of film screen radiography is presented followed by the brief description of two digital radiog...

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on exposure technique approaches in Computed Radiography (CR) imaging as a means of radiation dose optimization in CR imaging. Specifically the review assessed three approaches: optimization of kVp; optimization of mAs; and optimization of the Exposure Indicator (EI) in practice. Only papers dat...

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on exposure technique approaches in Computed Radiography (CR) imaging as a means of radiation dose optimization in CR imaging. Specifically the review assessed three approaches: optimization of kVp; optimization of mAs; and optimization of the Exposure Indicator (EI) in practice. Only papers dat...

Nuclear Medicine is a diagnostic modality which aims to image and in some cases quantify physiological processes in the body to highlight disease or injury. Within nuclear medicine, over the past few decades, major technological changes have occurred and concomitantly changes in the knowledge and skills required have had to evolve. One of the most...

Abstract Background : Computed tomography (CT) is a powerful diagnostic tool, but the radiation delivered to paediatric patients needs to be kept to a minimum. Thus, CT education and protocols must be continuously reviewed, particularly with respect to paediatric CT examinations. Purpose : To investigate the knowledge and perceptions of paediatric...

Aim: To measure and compare computed tomography (CT) radiation doses delivered to patients in public paediatric hospitals in Australia and Saudi Arabia. Methods: Doses were measured for routine CT scans of the head, chest and abdomen/pelvis for children aged 3-6 years in all dedicated public paediatric hospitals in Australia and Saudi Arabia usi...

This chapter captures the rapid advancement of CT scanning and includes information relating to both conventional CT scanning (CCTS) and multi-slice CT (MSCT); their advantages, disadvantages and applications. Illustrated throughout, the major components of a CT system are described in relation to the physical principles. An overview of some of the...

This chapter describes the physical principles and instrumentation of computed tomography (CT) and outlines several recent advances in CT technology. First, the history of CT is presented. Secondly, the essential physical principles are described. Thirdly, the technology of CT including image post-processing such as windowing is explained in detail...

Abstract Purpose : Computed tomography (CT) is used extensively in diagnostic radiology for examination of human soft tissues and is widely used in the paediatric population. Researchers and government regulators have expressed concerns about the cancer risk of CT radiation on children. The authors surveyed Saudi Arabian and Australian radiographer...

This Directed Reading article describes the physical principles and instrumentation of computed tomography (CT) and outlines several recent advances in CT technology. First, the history of CT is presented with emphasis on the contributions of two pioneers who earned the Nobel Prize for the development of the first clinically useful CT scanner. Seco...

This article deals with several image postprocessing concepts that are now commonplace in digital imaging in medicine. First, the motivation for the development of digital imaging modalities is described, followed by a rationale for understanding image postprocessing operations that have become common in radiology. Second, the image domain concept...

The large volumes of digital images produced by digital imaging modalities in Radiology have provided the motivation for the development of picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) in an effort to provide an organized mechanism for digital image management. The development of more sophisticated methods of digital image acquisition (Multis...

The purpose of this literature review was to explore the research conducted to date on the use of irreversible compression in digital diagnostic radiology.The degree of research on the use of irreversible compression in digital radiology is still in its infancy, since the technologies for digital radiology are still evolving. However, 90 papers rev...

This paper outlines the major technical principles and issues of digital mammography (DM). First the advantages of DM are listed followed by an explanation of the technical requirements for DM. Additionally, four types of DM detectors are described; the Flat-Panel Scintillator/amorphous Silicon (a-Si) System, Charge-Couple Device (CCD) System, Flat...

The purpose of this paper is to describe the essential elements of digital image compression and its use in digital radiology. Additionally, this article is intended to increase the shared knowledge between radiologic technologists and radiologists, equipment vendors and information technology personnel.

This article provides a brief historical account of the developments in MRI for applications in medicine. First, a review of the basic physics of MR imaging is presented, followed by a description of the contributions of Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine of Physiology in 2003.RésuméCet a...