Ellen Riggle

University of Kentucky | UKY · Department of Political Science

Many people in the United States express anti-LGBT attitudes and oppose LGBT rights. These views are perpetuated when others, including allies, tolerate expressions of anti-LGBT bias. In this study, we adapted and validated a measure of tolerance of homonegativity and transnega-tivity (TOHT), and assessed its associations with evaluations of LGBT p...

Transgender people report high levels of discrimination, prejudice, stigma-related anxiety and depression, and suicidality. In socially, politically, and religiously conservative areas, emphasis on traditional gender roles may lead to heightened levels of stigma-related stress and anxiety in transgender people and pose additional challenges to the...

Lesbian and bisexual women (LBW), regardless of where they live in the world, are at increased risk for traumatic experiences and negative mental health sequelae. LBW in Rwanda are an underresearched, at-risk population group that likely experiences substantial trauma associated with their sexual identity (and in some cases their nontraditional gen...

Public campaigns debating the rights of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex, and Queer (LGBTIQ) individuals to be treated as equal under the law highlight stigma and prejudice harmful to health and well-being. Previous research documenting the negative effects of political campaigns on LGBTIQ people's health and well-being has largely lef...

From a systems perspective, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused global changes impacting the lives of individuals at all levels of interactions. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with a sample of 18 African American/Black, Hispanic/Latina/Latinx, and White sexual minority women (SMW) to explore experiences and adaptations during the COVID...

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals are at risk for poorer health outcomes in part because of stigma, discrimination, victimization, and resulting trauma and stress. Stigma-related stress can lead to hypervigilance, or a chronic and pervasive state of alertness and readiness to respond to potential threats in the envi...

Young adult trans and nonbinary (TNB) individuals have heightened risk of health disparities (Burgwal et al., 2019), mental health concerns (McCann, 2015), family rejection (Klein & Golub, 2016), severe discrimination (Lelutiu-Weinberger, English, & Sandanapitchai, 2020), and attempted suicide in their lifetime (Adams, Hitomi, & Moody, 2017). There...

A growing body of literature provides important insights into the meaning and impact of the right to marry a same-sex partner among sexual minority people. We conducted a scoping review to 1) identify and describe the psychosocial impacts of equal marriage rights among sexual minority adults, and 2) explore sexual minority women (SMW) perceptions o...

Hypervigilance is an individual’s heightened awareness to threat or potential threats in their surroundings, may be context specific, and may be associated with negative mental health outcomes. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ)-identified individuals may experience hypervigilance related to their stigmatized status. There are f...

IntroductionSexual minority women (SMW) may have different experiences of macro-level events, such as changes in marriage laws or election outcomes, related to their multiple identities. African American, Latina/x, and White identities intersect with gender/sex and sexual identity to influence experiences at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, social...

Sexual minority women (SMW; e.g., lesbian, bisexual, queer) are at increased risk for heavy/hazardous drinking and marijuana use, which may be exacerbated by stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and efforts to mitigate its spread (e.g., sheltering at home). To explore their experiences and perceptions of alcohol and marijuana use in the con...

Gender role socialization influences women’s expectations in intimate relationships. For bisexual-identifying women, expectations may differ by the gender of their partner. We interviewed a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 12 bisexual-identifying cis-gender women (M = 32 years old) about their relationship expectations of female- and male-...

This mixed-methods study explored perceptions of the impact of marriage legalization in all U.S. states among sexual minority women and gender diverse individuals. Survey data were collected from a nonprobability sample of individuals 18 years or older who identified as lesbian, bisexual, queer, same-sex attracted or something other than exclusivel...

Acceptance by parental figures is one of the most important protective factors for the mental health of LGBTQ individuals. To date, little is known about the experiences of Latinx parents of LGBTQ children. Thirty Latinx parental figures (19 Cuban-Americans; 11 Puerto Ricans) completed an expressive writing (EW) intervention focusing on cultural st...

Internalized homophobia (IH) refers to negative attitudes and stereotypes that a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) person may hold regarding their own sexual identity. Recent sociocultural changes in attitudes and policies affecting LGB people generally reflect broader acceptance of sexual minorities, and may influence the manner in which LGB people...

As part of a larger online survey, we conducted an Internet-based study that included both qualitative and quantitative data from a national non-probability sample to examine how sexual minority women and gender non-conforming individuals described their experiences and concerns after the 2016 election. The current study explores responses in relat...

Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals face stigmatization from family members and peers, placing this group at high risk of adverse outcomes including suicidality, substance abuse, and compromised mental health. This article uses a literature review approach to explore the common experiences of parents of TGD individuals as they navigate...

Research conducted in high-income countries has documented substantial health disparities among sexual minority women (SMW; lesbian, bisexual, and other nonheterosexual women). However, little is known about the health of SMW in low-income countries where stigma and minority stressors are likely much more pervasive. Guided by the question, “What ar...

This study explored the lived experiences of a sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, and queer (LGBTIQ) people during the Australian Government postal survey on legal recognition of same-sex marriage (August to November 2017). Negative impacts of public voting and debates on marriage equality for LGBTIQ people have been previousl...

We review methodological opportunities and lessons learned in conducting a longitudinal, prospective study of same-sex couples with civil unions, recruited from a population-based sample, who were compared with same-sex couples in their friendship circle who did not have civil unions, and heterosexual married siblings and their spouse. At Time 1 (2...

Many diversity and social justice-related training workshops are conducted on college campuses, in workplaces, and with community organizations each year, yet psychological practitioners and trainers have very little evidence for making decisions about the effectiveness of these trainings. It remains unclear, for instance, whether group specific in...

Objective In August 2017, the Australian Government announced a voluntary, non‐binding postal survey to seek opinion on the legal recognition of same‐sex marriage. The government encouraged public debate on the issue. This study sought to identify impacts of the Australian postal survey and associated marriage equality debate on psychological distr...

This chapter asks, What contributes to the stability of same-sex couples?—or, in other words, Why do same-sex couples stay together? First, it reviews and critiques the empirical literature on stability and longevity in same-sex couple relationships. It then argues for the utility of more consistently integrating theories from relationship science...

This is the first comprehensive and interdisciplinary volume on divorce and relationship dissolution among LGBTQ people. With the goal of informing policy, practice, and future research, the volume gathers and expands current knowledge on: LGBTQ people’s relationship and dissolution patterns, the divorce and child custody rules and processes that n...

Having a positive LGB identity is theorized to contribute to psychological well-being (PWB), but this relationship has rarely been examined empirically. We examined associations between 5 LGB positive identity factors (LGB-PIM) and 6 domains of PWB in a sample of 332 LGB adults who completed an online survey. All 5 LGB positive identity factors wer...

The extension of marriage rights to same-sex couples in the United States provides an opportunity to examine how legalization of same-sex marriage has impacted the experiences of sexual minority women (SMW) in interactions within their extended social networks and local communities. Interviews were conducted with 20 SMW ranging in age from 23 to 75...

Public restrooms in U.S. culture are highly gendered, politicized, problematic spaces. Gender non-conforming lesbians may feel especially at risk for various forms of harassment or policing by other occupants in the “ladies’ (rest)room.” Using auto-ethnographic lived experiences as observations, this essay explores reactions of other women/female o...

Experiences of a gender non-conforming lesbian in the “ladies’ (rest)room” Abstract Public restrooms in U.S. culture are highly gendered, politicized, problematic spaces. Gender non-conforming lesbians may feel especially at risk for various forms of harassment or policing by other occupants in the “ladies’ (rest)room.” Using auto-ethnographic live...

Psychological and physical health disparities in bisexual individuals are well documented. The factors underlying these disparities and their persistence is still a matter of exploration. This essay presents an argument for the concept of ostracism as a way to further understand bisexual experience and consequent persistent health disparities. Wher...

Research has shown that ostracism is harmful to the health and well-being of the ostracized individual (as well as the ostracizer and members of the community). While often conceptualized solely as an interpersonal action, ostracism can originate at multiple levels of the socio-ecological system to impact individuals. This may include forms of poli...

Much progress has been made in terms of LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) rights. The 2016 United States presidential election, however, raised concerns that this progress could be slowed, if not reversed. We conducted an internet-based study and gathered both qualitative and quantitative data from a national convenience sample...

The 2016 presidential election and its outcome evoked strong reactions for many people in the United States. Women who identify as lesbian, bisexual, or queer, and individuals who identify as transgender or genderqueer felt at increased risk of experiencing discrimination and minority stress after the election (Veldhuis et al., 2017 Veldhuis, C. B....

In general, transgender individuals report experiencing high levels of discrimination and violence, as well as high levels of safety concerns and a need to be vigilant to the safety of their environs. The stress that arises from these high levels of violence and discrimination has sizable effects on mental and physical health. The results of the 20...

Support from family of origin is important to the health and well-being of sexual minority women (SMW) and structural stigma may impact that support. The recent extension of marriage rights to same-sex couples in all U.S. states provided an opportunity to examine whether this change in law would impact the relationship of SMW with their families of...

Although marriage tends to be protective against hazardous drinking among women in the general population, few studies have compared drinking rates, levels, or problems based on relationship status among sexual minority women (SMW; lesbian, bisexual). We examined associations between relationship status (committed relationship/cohabiting; committed...

Many same-sex couples had already established long-term relationships prior to the availability of civil marriage rights in the USA. The impact and possible benefits of marriage and marriage recognition for long-term couples was tested using data from a sample of couple members: 307 in a civil marriage and 50 with no legal relationship status. The...

The centrality of close relationships to optimal human functioning has motivated some theorists to suggest that positive relationships form the “fourth pillar” of the positive psychology framework (Fincham & Beach, 2010). We used this conceptualization as the basis for a review and synthesis of the empirical literature on the strengths of same-sex...

Intimates form stable impressions of their romantic partner’s conflict style, which may influence interactions during conflicts and shape expectancies regarding future disagreements. Despite a large body of work comparing relationship outcomes among heterosexual and same-sex couples, research has yet to examine how the validity of these perceptions...

Outness, concealment, and authenticity have all been theorized to be important to lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) well-being and psychological outcomes. Using a sample of 373 LGB participants, the current study tests the unique contributions of each of these constructs to outcomes measuring psychological well-being, depressive symptoms, and percei...

While prior research has compared same-sex to heterosexual relationships, very little attention has been paid to the unique experiences of women dissolving same-sex relationships, especially in the context of shifting legal and social policies. The current study examined the experience of 20 women who dissolved their same-sex relationship between 2...

In the emerging context of marriage equality, it is important to explore the reasons for and experience of marriage for long-term same-sex couples, including the role of minority stress. In Wave 3 of the population-based, longitudinal CUPPLES Study we interviewed 21 long-term same-sex couples (14 female, 7 male) who resided in 12 different states a...

Religion and spirituality are positive resources in the lives of many individuals (Pargament, Mahoney, Shafranske, Exline, & Jones, 2013). Although much of the existing research on the intersection of religious/spiritual and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ) identities has focused on conflicts in these identities (Fontenot,...

Considerable research has examined reciprocal ties between religiosity/spirituality (R/S) and parenting within families headed by heterosexual married and single parents (Mahoney, 2010). Yet, no systematic studies have explored interlinkages between parenting and R/S within families headed by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) i...

Long-term same-sex couples have maintained relationships within a sociopolitical environment that has historically stigmatized and provided little or no legal recognition for their relationship. In a qualitative interview study about relationships, 31 same-sex couples, in relationships lasting from 13 to 41 years (mean length = 22.6 years), were as...

Intergroup prejudice negatively affects all individuals in a society. Past research has primarily focused on how to reduce intergroup prejudice, especially prejudice held by members of privileged groups against members of stigmatized groups. In this article, we briefly summarize the literature on several effective prejudice reduction techniques. We...

The U.S. Supreme Court decisions in U.S. v Windsor (570 U.S. 307) and Hollingsworth v Perry (570 U.S. 399) created a focal point for public discussion of marriage equality for same-sex couples. This article reports the results of an exploratory study of the reactions of individuals currently or previously in same-sex couple relationships and a hete...

Research on heterosexual allies has focused on heterosexual identity development models and pathways to ally activism. The positive aspects or positive experiences of identifying as an ally to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) identified individuals and communities have received little attention. Using an online survey of participants...

This article describes the development of a measure proposing a multifactor structure of positive identity for self-identified transgender individuals. Data from 138 transgender-identified individuals were used in an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of 95 statements in an item pool presented in an online survey. The resulting structure suggests a...

This article describes the development of a measure of positive lesbian, gay, and/or bisexual (LGB) identity. Two studies were conducted to, first, establish the factor structure of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Positive Identity Measure (LGB-PIM), and second, test the reliability and validity of the resulting 25-item scale. Study 1 provided data...

A brief intervention exercise focusing on positive experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning young adults and their young adult allies (LGBTQA) was hypothesized to increase positive LGBTQA identity, collective self-esteem, and individual self-esteem. Participants (N = 52) completed pretest, listened to a presentat...

This poster explained positive themes identified from 314 survey respondents of individuals who identified as having both a spiritual/religious identity and identify as LGBTQ+. The primary themes identified are: (1) love and acceptance, (2) deeper meaning of faith, (3) empathy, openness, and compassionate action; (4) enhanced positive relationships...

Parenting an LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer) identified child presents unique opportunities for growth and development. This study focused on self-reported perceptions of the positive aspects of being the parent of an LGBTQ child. Participants (N = 142) were mothers (83.8%) and fathers (16.2%) of LGBTQ identified individuals w...

Novels provide role models for young adult lesbians and thus may influence their identity development. This study focused on 16 lesbian protagonists identified in 11 young adult novels that received 2011 Lambda Literary Award nominations. Content analyses revealed six themes. Three themes defied traditional gender stereotypes: Asserting Oneself, Pu...

Positive self-identity is an important component of well-being. For lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender/transsexual (LGBT)-identified individuals in Spanish-speaking countries, forming and maintaining a positive identity is important to countering the negative impact of minority stress. An online survey collected self-reported data from partici...

The denial of civil marriage rights is a specific example of minority stress that can negatively affect the psychosocial well-being of self-identified lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals in same-sex partnerships, their families, and their allies. Counseling psychologists have an important role in addressing the minori...

This study explored the experiences of family members of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals (N= 198) following the 2006 November election in the United States. Family members in states that passed a constitutional amendment to restrict marriage recognition (PASS) reported greater exposure to negative media messages about LGB individuals a...

The political debates and policies related to the civil marriage rights of same-sex couples have psychological and social impacts on lesbian, gay, bisexual indi-viduals and same-sex couples and also on their families, friends, and communi-ties. The overarching goal of this issue was to significantly advance the previous sparse literature on these i...

Research to date has primarily focused on health risks, psychopathologies and negative life experiences with little attention to the positive aspects of identifying as transgender. An online survey collected data on self-reports of the positive aspects of a transgender identity (n = 61). Qualitative thematic analysis revealed eight positive identit...

Drawing on sexual identity development theory and interpersonal contact theory, this study explored GLB knowledge and GLB internalized affirmation as mediators of connection to GLB community and outcomes including negative marriage amendment-related affect and level of activism among family members of GLB individuals (N = 206). Using structural equ...

Nondiscrimination policies are intended to prohibit discrimination on the basis of specified characteristics. It is also argued that they send a message to minority groups that they are protected and welcomed within that jurisdiction. This study tested the latter supposition by exploring whether lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) residents of states...

Although religiosity has been shown to be associated with positive outcomes in studies of general population samples, few studies have considered the potential differential effect of religiosity on those who are consolidating gay, lesbian, or bisexual (GLB) identities. Logistic regression analyses using a sample of 13,038 emerging adults from the N...

Political campaigns to deny same-sex couples the right to civil marriage have been demonstrated to increase minority stress and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals (S. S. Rostosky, E. D. B. Riggle, S. G. Horne, & A. D. Miller, 2009). To further explicate the psychological reactions of LGB individuals to marriage a...

Bisexual clients (Page, 200722. Page , E. 2007 . “ Bisexual women's and men's experiences of psychotherapy ” . In Becoming visible: Counseling bisexuals across the lifespan , Edited by: Firestein , B.A. 52 – 71 . New York, NY : Columbia University Press . View all references) and lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB)-affirmative therapists (Godfrey, Hadd...

Families high in cohesion and adaptability are often able to function better than families low in cohesion and adaptability. This study hypothesized that heterosexual family members who report their family adaptability and/or cohesion to be high rather than low would have more contact with their GLBT family member, report more GLBT friends, family...

Legal recognition of same-sex couple relationships provides at least some material benefits to couple members; however, few studies have examined the associations between legal recognition and psychological distress or well-being. Using an online survey sample of 2,677 lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) individuals, participants were placed in 4 groups:...

More than half of U.S. states have passed amendments to their constitutions excluding same-sex couples from civil marriage. The impact of these ballot initiatives and debates on lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals has been underresearched. Extending research on racial and ethnic minority groups, as well as research on LGB groups, the study...

Eudaimonic well being refers to personal growth and having purpose and meaning in life. High levels of eudaimonic well being facilitate a positive life experience. The National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS) data was used to test a model predicting eudaimonic well being as a function of sexual identity. Reporting a lesbi...

An online survey of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults (N = 1,552) examined minority stress (I. H. Meyer, 2003) and psychological distress following the 2006 general election in which constitutional amendments to limit marriage to 1 man and 1 woman were on the ballot in 9 states. Following the November election, participants living in states t...

Domain-specific measures, such as political ideology and sophistication, have been used in models of how citizens evaluate candidates for political office. Non-domain-specific factors, such as age, may have additional explanatory power in models of evaluations and affect the type of information processing strategies employed by citizens. Specifical...

Religious involvement has been found to be associated with higher levels of commitment and relationship satisfaction among heterosexually married individuals (Mahoney et al., 1999). Little is known, however, about the religiosity of gay, lesbian, bisexual (GLB) individuals, and virtually nothing is known about religious involvement in same-sex coup...

Thirteen interracial same-sex couples (8 male, 5 female) participated in a 30-minute dyadic conversation focused on perceptions of stress and coping in their relationship. A qualitative analysis of the transcribed conversations revealed that the majority of couples experienced both race-related and sexual identity–related stress. Almost half of the...

An apparent lack of empirical research on religiosity and same-sex couple relationships led to an exploratory examination of the role of religiosity in the relationships of 90 same-sex couples. For most couple participants, religious expression took an internal or private form rather than a public form. Couples tended to be homogamous in their reli...

The need to provide culturally competent training for counseling gay men and lesbians (as well as other sexual minorities) is limited by the relative scarcity of research. Extant research has focused on psychopathologies and negative life experiences with little attention to the positive aspects of the lives of gay men and lesbians. An online surve...

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) individuals report lower levels of positive mental health than the general population (e.g., Cochran, 2001 ) and thus have a need for appropriate mental health services. The authors conducted an online survey to assess factors associated with the use of such services and the perceived availability of G...

Providing culturally competent services to same-sex couples requires an understanding of the social context in which these relationships are formed and maintained. Using minority stress theory (I. H. Meyer, 2003) as an interpretive framework, the authors conducted a dyadic-level qualitative analysis of 40 (20 female; 20 male) couples' conversations...

Previous research has documented that substance use peaks during young adulthood and that religiosity provides a protective effect against binge drinking, marijuana use, and cigarette smoking. The majority of these studies do not examine sexual identity as it relates to these factors. Drawing on social influence and developmental theories, we teste...

Despite interest in the role of religiosity in youth development and health behavior, few studies have examined these associations in sexual minority youth. Participants (n=11,699) who were adolescents (wave 1) and young adults (wave 3) in the Add Health survey were used to examine proximal and distal religiosity by sexual identity group and to tes...

The lack of legal recognition of same-sex couples can leave partners vulnerable in a crisis or emergency. Advance planning is one strategy couples can use to establish legal rights. Analyses of data collected from both partners in 131 same-sex couples suggested that executing advance-planning documents (wills, powers of attorney for finance and hea...

Twenty-eight same-sex couples were interviewed regarding advance planning documents (e.g., wills and powers of attorney). Results revealed motivating and inhibiting factors in decisions whether to execute documents. Couples who had executed advance planning documents were motivated by their desire for protection, by their commitment to their relati...

This research focuses on the relationship between sources of minority stress and the quality of same-sex couples’ relationships. Interdependence theory and the minority stress model are used to examine actor-partner effects of internalized homophobia, discrimination, and perceived stress on perceptions of relationship quality in same-sex couples. C...

Theoretical constructs and meanings of relational commitment for same-sex couples have typically been generalized from heterosexual relationships. Same-sex couples, however, face a unique set of challenges in constructing committed relationships. To expand our knowledge of the meaning of commitment, same-sex couples described their lived experience...

Using data from both partners in female same-sex couples, individual and dyadic (individual/actor-partner) level analyses were conducted to determine the associations between couple members' global mental health, internalized homophobia, and perceptions of relationship qualities and satisfaction (N = 90). Findings at the dyadic level indicated that...

Same-sex couples face many challenges in forming and maintaining committed relationships. Challenges unique to same-sex couples include experiences with homonegativity. Sixteen same-sex couples were asked to share their experiences with homonegativity that had an influence on their relational commitment. Data from their conversations were analyzed...

Healthy adult development commonly includes a desire and intent to form intimate, long-term relationships. For individuals attracted to members of the other sex, these relationships may be formed, socially affirmed, and, by mutual choice, legally recognized by government agencies in the U.S. For individuals attracted to members of the same sex, the...

Sexual minority individuals (specifically bisexual, gay, lesbian and transgendered [BGLT]) have identities and relationships that are socially stigmatized and legally unrecognized. An online survey of 398 BGLT individuals was conducted concerning their execution of 5 legal planning documents: a will, powers of attorney for finances and health care,...

Research has suggested that the majority of psychologists feel underprepared to provide services to lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients, including same-sex couples. To provide competent services to same-sex couples, psychologists must be aware of and sensitive to legal status issues. One special area of vulnerability for couples can be addressed and...