Eduardo Sebastián

• Doctor en Geología
• Catedrático at University of Granada

This paper explores the historical and geological background of the refectory of the Manzana Jesuítica in the city of Córdoba (Argentina), as a basis for characterising some of the building materials used in it. The aim is to gain a better understanding of the raw materials, labour, and production methods employed by the Jesuits in the seventeenth...

This paper presents a thorough study of the main features and the decay causes and mechanisms of serpentinites both freshly quarried and after centuries exposure at the main façade of the sixteenth century Royal Chancery (Granada, Spain). In particular, the process of in situ formation of calcium and magnesium sulfates has been studied. Several dec...

This research examines fired clay bricks made with waste pomace from the wine industry as an additive in brick production. To this end, we analyse and discuss the chemical, mineralogical, textural and physical-mechanical behaviour of fired bricks made with three concentrations of wine pomace (2.5, 5 and 10 wt%) and at three different firing tempera...

This paper presents a thorough study of the main features and the decay causes and mechanisms of serpentinites both freshly quarried and after centuries exposure at the main façade of the sixteenth century Royal Chancery (Granada, Spain). In particular, the process of in situ formation of calcium and magnesium sulfates has been studied. Several dec...

En este trabajo se establecen las características del material empleado en las construcciones de los distintos recintos amurallados de la ciudad de Granada, que se conocen históricamente como "Alcazabas de Granada" y arrabales, distinguiendo entre material de interior de muro y revestimientos. Como objetivo final, este estudio nos ha permitido esta...

The sandstone known as “Piedra Dorada”, or golden stone, is one of the most commonly used materials in the construction of many of the main historic buildings in the province of Jaén. Many examples can be found in the cities of Úbeda and Baeza, declared World Heritage Cities by UNESCO. A thorough characterization of their main varieties: “Viva”, “F...

State of conservation studies carried out prior to rehabilitation and restorative interventions allow to act consistently on architectural heritage. This has been done in this research, graphic location of alterations, study of materials for alteration and measuring of environmental parameters (T and H) in the plasterwork of the Oratory of the Madr...

The mineralogical evolution of di- and trioctahedral smectites (i.e. montmorillonite and saponite) exposed to high-pH environments has been studied to determine the influence of compositional differences on clay dissolution and the formation of new phases. The present study helps to gauge the effects of highly alkaline solutions on the swelling cap...

Soil organic matter has important implications in dissolution reactions of clay minerals and their transformation. Under acidic conditions increased dissolution rates are generally reported. However, in high pH environments, organic matter (OM) might have a passivation effect on the mineral surface, thereby hindering dissolution and transformation...

This work focuses on the chemical-mineralogical, textural and physical-mechanical properties of hydraulic lime mortars made with siliceous and calcareous aggregate. Mortars were cured at 60% and 90% of relative humidity, so as to assess the variability of mortar petrophysical properties in the hardened state due to the moisture conditions. The fina...

The majority of historic buildings and archaeological remains made of earth exhibit important conservation problems, which require consolidation. Most conventional consolidation treatments used in the past have not succeeded in providing a long-term solution because they did not tackle the main cause of degradation, the expansion and contraction of...

Serpentinites from Sierra Nevada (Granada, south of Spain) have been traditionally used as ornamental elements in historic buildings, both indoors and outdoors. The Cathedral, Carlos V Palace, Royal Chancellery in Granada and some others are good examples of their use. Outside Granada, we find the serpentinites in El Escorial monastery, The Royal P...

The durability of a rock when exposed to decay agents is an important criterion when assessing its quality as a building material. Our study focuses on six varieties of natural stone (two limestones, one dolostone, one travertine and two sandstones) that are widely used in both new and historical buildings. In order to assess their quality, we meas...

Serpentinites are widely used in historic buildings in the whole world, from Ancient Greek or Egypt to more recent colonial buildings in the USA. Serpentinites from Sierra Nevada (S of Spain) have been traditionally used as ornamental elements in historic buildings of Granada city, both indoors and outdoors. The Cathedral, Carlos V Palace, Royal Ch...

Limestones used as building material are especially prone to weathering in coastal environments due to interactions between sea mist and the carbonate stone. Subtle variations of the commercial surface finishing may lead to differences in decay patterns and aesthetic properties due to salt crystallization. To explore this potentially contrasting be...

Six types of sedimentary stone (four bioclastic calcarenites, one calcitic sandstone and one calcitic dolostone) commonly used as building materials were studied from a petrophysical point of view and their durability was evaluated. The following analytical techniques were used: X-ray diffraction, polarizing optical microscopy, hydric tests, mercur...

Atmospheric pollution is one of the main agents of decay in monuments and other works of art located in industrialised urban centres. SO2 is a permanent and abundant component of air pollution and, although it does not have an immediate visual effect, after continuous exposure, it can cause irreversible damage to building materials. Marble is one o...

Las serpentinitas de Sierra Nevada (SE de España) son uno de los litotipos empleados tradicionalmente en edificios históricos de la ciudad de Granada o en otros tan emblemáticos como el Monasterio de El Escorial, en Madrid. Se extrajeron de dos canteras situadas en las localidades de Monachil y Güejar Sierra (Granada). Es posible encontrar elemento...

A two-year term aging test was carried out on a building limestone under different urban conditions in the city of Granada (Southern Spain) to assess its Cultural Heritage sustainability. For this purpose stone tablets were placed vertically at four sites with contrasting local pollution micro-environments and exposure conditions (rain-sheltered an...

Marble has historically been used as an ornamental stone because of its aesthetic appeal, ease of polishing and excellent physical properties. One of the main factors affecting the durability of marbles is their thermal behaviour. Although marble is used extensively in Spain as a building and decorative material, little research has been done into...

caracterizar y comparar petrográfica y químicamente los litotipos “Arenisca de Ronda” y “Molinaza Roja”, extraído uno en Ronda (Málaga) y otro en Montoro (Córdoba), respectivamente. Este trabajo se enmarca dentro de un estudio más amplio de materiales de construcción que no admiten el pulido de sus superficies debido, sobre todo, a su sistema poros...

One of the properties that makes marble such an excellent construction and ornamental material is its low porosity. It is very difficult for water or decay agents to penetrate the internal structure of materials with no or few pores, so enhancing the durability of these materials. However, environmental temperature fluctuations bring about signific...

We studied the pore system of six different types of sedimentary stone (two limestones, two sandstones, one dolostone and one travertine). Techniques based on the direct observation of the pore system (optical and scanning electron microscopes, digital image analysis) were combined with others used for indirect characterization (mercury intrusion p...

We present a detailed characterization of two calcareous stones from Andalusia (Southern Spain), namely Escúzar calcarenite and Olivillo travertine. Both materials can replace two stones extensively used in the architectural heritage of Andalusia, i.e. La Escribana calcarenite and Alfacar travertine. To establish the suitability of the replacement...

One of the most commonly used marbles in Spain is “White Macael” marble, quarried in the Macael area of Almeria. Throughout Spanish history, White Macael has been in great demand as an ornamental stone and was used to build pieces of great importance and artistic beauty, such as the Fountain of Lions in the Alhambra (Granada).Over the centuries, su...

Ceramic fragments from the archaeological excavation of the Iberian–Roman city of Basti (Spain) were studied from a geochemical point of view and by applying a statistical tool to X-ray fluorescence data to discover similarities between ceramic materials. The analysis of these samples was completed by performing a mineralogical analysis, textural o...

Tablets of rough and polished travertine were aged in a sea-salt spray corrosion chamber to explore potentially contrasting stone decay behaviour due to different surface finishing processes. This paper presents a multianalytical approach to characterise the chemical, mineralogical, textural, porosimetric and colourimetric features of quarried and...

We present a detailed characterization of two calcareous stones from Andalusia (Southern Spain), namely Escuzar calcarenite and Olivillo travertine. Both materials can replace two stones extensively used in the architectural heritage of Andalusia, i.e. La Escribana calcarenite and Alfacar travertine. To establish the suitability of the replacement...

Lime mortar is a mixture formed by kneading together aggregates, lime and water. It is one of the most frequently used materials in the history of building and was widespread even in ancient times with remains being found in houses in Delos and Thera (Gaspar Tébar 1996 ), and in buildings in Festos and Malia (Furlan and Bissegger 1975 ; Malinowski...

We should begin our study of this type of construction by analysing the various definitions of tapial. Some authors have used the term tapialto describe almost all large-scale primitive constructions with earth, whilst others associate the expression with the use of earth as a building material, and consider it similar to adobe (Sánchez Hernández e...

The Gran Potenza clay and the Pomici di Avellino pyroclastics, respectively the clay sediments and temper of the typical ceramic manufacture in Benevento area (Italy). were mixed in different proportion and fired at 850 degrees, 900 degrees and 950 degrees C. These experimental replicas were compared with historical ceramic products of Benevento. T...

The technical quality of two compositionally different groups of solid bricks fired between 800 and 1000 °C was evaluated. Five weight percentage of fly ash was added to both groups and they were compared with similar bricks with no added fly ash.The textures of the bricks with fly ash were very similar to the textures of those without it, except t...

Los mayores inconvenientes que derivan del empleo de la cal aérea como aglomerante en morteros de restauración son una lenta carbonatación, bajas resistencias mecánicas y una elevada retracción por secado. Para contrarrestar estas desventajas y descartando a priori el uso del cemento Portland en intervenciones de restauración del patrimonio históri...

Santa Pudia limestone, a biocalcarenite highly sensitive to decay, is one of the most commonly used building materials in historical monuments in the city of Granada, Spain. The compatibility between a variety of stone treatments (consolidants and/or water repellents) and this calcarenite was analyzed and the resulting improvement in durability ass...

The sulfation of four types of calcitic and dolomitic lime mortars exposed to SO2 in the presence of particulate matter from diesel vehicle exhaust emissions has been investigated. The binders mineralogy and mortars texture are the main factors influencing the formation of deleterious sulfate salts. The type of binder also influences the pore size...

A common decay scenario in old and new buildings was simulated: the effects on masonry structures of salt efflorescence or subefflorescence produced by the rise of saline solution. Eight different types of masonry wall each made up of a combination of different construction materials (brick, calcarenite and four types of mortar were combined as fol...

Santa Pudia limestone, a biocalcarenite highly sensitive to decay, is one of the most commonly used building materials in historical monuments in the city of Granada, Spain. The compatibility between a variety of stone treatments (consolidants and/or water repellents) and this calcarenite was analyzed and the resulting improvement in durability ass...

“Sierra Elvira stone” is one of the ornamental building stones most widely used in the historical monuments of eastern Andalusia. A Liassic age limestone, it appears in the central section of the Baetic Mountains and more specifically in the Middle Subbaetic domain. While the most common variety is a crinoid limestone, a micritic limestone of the s...

“Sierra Elvira stone” is one of the ornamental building stones most widely used in the historical monuments of eastern Andalusia. A Liassic age limestone, it appears in the central section of the Baetic Mountains and more specifically in the Middle Subbaetic domain. While the most common variety is a crinoid limestone, a micritic limestone of t...

Clay–water interactions result in damage and loss of earthen architecture. Natural and artificial additives were traditionally added to earth in order to increase its water resistance and mechanical strength. More recently, portland cement, ethyl silicates and synthetic resins have been applied to consolidate earthen structures, however often with...

This study shows that the sandstone used in the construction of the Church of San Mateo in Tarifa (Cádiz, Spain) is highly sensitive to processes of decay because of a combination of factors that are intrinsic and extrinsic to the material. The mineralogy, texture and porous system of the sandstone and the proximity of the church to the sea all pla...

This paper describes the geochemistry and petrography of three phosphatic nodular deposits in Ragusa Province, south-east Sicily (Italy). Phosphate nodules of late Burdigalian age are dispersed in a soft, friable packstone matrix within the Irminio Member of the Ragusa Formation. Mineralogical analyses revealed large amounts of calcite (64 to 89 wt...

"Sierra Elvira stone" is one of the ornamental building stones most widely used in the historical monuments of eastern Andalusia. A Liassic age limestone, it appears in the central section of the Baetic Mountains and more specifically in the Middle Subbaetic domain. While the most common variety is a crinoid limestone, a micritic limestone of the s...

This study deals with the petrographic analysis of a great variety of construction materials used to build a 16th century church in NE Sicily. X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy techniques were useful to establish the composition and the texture of natural stones (phyllites, schists, marbles and volcanic scoriae) and artificial materials (mor...

In the article we study the variation of brick durability and, more specifically, its resistance to salt crystallisation produced by changes in its microstructure during firing. For this purpose, the evolution of both mechanical and pore structure properties are studied within a wide range of temperatures (700–1100∘C). An increase in the firing tem...

Phosphonates were tested as potential crystallization inhibitors for sodium sulfate, one of the most damaging soluble salts in historic building and sculpture. Although mirabilite (Na2SO4·10H2O) crystallization is promoted in the presence of 1-hydroxyethylidene-1,1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP), aminotris(methylenephosphonic acid) (ATMP), and diethylene...

We have evaluated the effects of various additives (phophonates) on the dynamics and kinetics of crystallization, as well as on the growth morphology of magnesium sulfate (at different concentrations and pH), as a first step to disclose if they can be effective to control salt weathering associated to this salt affecting porous ornamental stone. Th...

Clay-water interactions result in damage and loss of earthen architecture. Natural and artificial additives were traditionally added to earth in order to increase its water resistance and mechanical strength. More recently, polyvinyl alcohol, portland cement, ethyl silicates, epoxy and acrylic resins have been applied to consolidate earthen structu...

The production of glazed ceramics in Italy started in 13th century, following Islamic tradition and techniques. Protomajolica samples from two medieval archaeological sites in Benevento were analyzed from mineralogical and petrographical points of view to identify and characterize the local production of fine glazed wares. Samples are represented b...

We have studied the carbonation process in different types of mortars, with and without pozzolana or air-entraining additives, subject to a CO2-rich atmosphere and compared the results with those of similar naturally carbonated mortars. We used X-ray diffraction technique to demonstrate that high CO2 concentrations favour a faster, more complete ca...

We deal with the textural aspects, porometry and hydric behaviour of combinations of building materials and their durability under attack by salt crystallisation and freezing. We selected 4 types of lime mortar (pure lime mortar, lime mortar + air-entraining agent, lime mortar + pozzolana and lime mortar + air-entraining agent + pozzolana) which we...

El artículo presenta un estudio en el que se ha medido mediante colorimetría la modificación de luminosidad y cromaticidad de ladrillos macizos cocidos a distintas temperaturas. Tierras arcillosas de diferente composición generan piezas de diferentes colores porque reflejan el desarrollo de distintas fases minerales. Se ha demostrado también la uti...

The paper studies the effect of additives such as calcite, dolomite and sodium chloride on the mineralogical–textural and physical–mechanical behaviour of solid bricks destined for use as new materials in the restoration of historic buildings. The behavioural differences between specimens with and without carbonates can be explained by the differen...

The fountain of Bibatauín, in Granada (Spain), is in a poor state of conservation, and biodeterioration is occurring. Colonization by microalgae and its effects on the fountain were investigated. The microorganisms from representative sampling areas were identified by optical microscopy, and the biogenic carbonate crusts they formed analysed by X-r...

Bricks proceeding from one of the bastions of the Riga medieval defence wall were studied. Two main type of bricks were identified: one rich in quartz and red coloured and the other with a calcium silicate phase and yellow coloured. The survey of the bastion reveals a partial deterioration of the bricks. It was observed that differences in mineralo...

The influence of storing slaked lime under water for extended periods of time (i.e., aging) on Ca(OH)2 crystal morphology, texture, and carbonation evolution of various lime mortars has been studied by the combined use of X-ray diffractometry, phenolphthalein tests, porosity measurements, electron microscopy, and ultrasonic wave propagation analyse...

When marble is cleaned by nanosecond neodymium yttrium–aluminum–garnet lasers 1064 nm, strongly absorbing surface contaminants are removed at fluences substantially below the damage threshold for the much less absorptive marble substrate. Recent studies have shown, however, that unacceptable roughening of the marble surface also may occur at low fl...

The changes in brick porosity upon firing (700 up to 1100 °C) and its relation to the mineralogical composition are examined. Two types of raw clay with a composition representative of that used in brick-making industry were selected to manufacture the bricks: one contains notable amounts of carbonates, with a grain size of under 1 mm, and the othe...

Incorporating the results of a meeting held in London in December 2000, sponsored by English Heritage and The Getty Conservation Institute, this article reviews both consolidants and protective treatments for the conservation o f deteriorated limestone and lime plaster. Carbonate deposition (including both inorganic solutions and bio-mineralization...

This paper presents an overview of current knowledge and recent advances in the application of pulsed laser radiation to the cleaning of works of art, particularly ornamental stone. Special emphasis is put on the critical review of publications from the last six years. The recent history of laser cleaning in art conservation is summarised and a des...

Mullite (Mul) formation after high-T muscovite (Ms) breakdown has been studied in phyllosilicate-rich bricks. At T ≥ 900 °C Ms dehydroxylation is followed by partial melting that triggers the nucleation and growth of Mul acicular crystals. An analytical electron microscopy study reveals that the Mul is a 3:2-type with a [6](Al1.686Ti0.031Fe0.159Mg0...

Differences in mineralogical and textural evolution during firing of calcareous and non-calcareous bricks are studied and correlated with their behaviour in hygric and weathering tests. Results reveal significant differences in the evolution of vitrification degree, porosity and pore size distribution. Such evolution depends mostly on raw clay comp...

We have studied the physical-mechanical behaviour of solid bricks treated with consolidants and/or water-repellents in accelerated aging tests to determine their durability. The bricks were manufactured with a quartz-rich clay lacking in carbonates to which was added small amounts of different additives (calcite, dolomite or sodium chloride). Durin...

We have studied the physical-mechanical behaviour of solid bricks treated with consolidants and/or water-repellents in accelerated aging tests to determine their durability. The bricks were manufactured with a quartz-rich clay lacking in carbonates to which was added small amounts of different additives (calcite, dolomite or sodium chloride). Durin...

The application limits of the laser-cleaning technique for different types of building stones have been investigated by measuring colour variations. The selected stones differ in their chemical and mineralogical composition, colour, texture and crystallinity degree. The experimentation was carried out with a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The colour vari...

Liesegang patterns, generally rings, bands, spheres or spirals, form in far-from-equilibrium systems in nature and in the laboratory by self-organized periodic precipitation of sparingly soluble phases following a nonlinear reaction-diffusion process. Although Liesegang patterns have been known for more than hundred years, there is still disagreeme...

The effects of [Fe(CN)6]4− ions on the crystallization of NaCl in aqueous solution has been studied, particularly in the situation where the saline fluid percolates through and evaporates from a saturated porous body (i.e., an ornamental porous limestone). In concentrations ranging from 2.48×10−4 up to 2.85 10−3 M the additive was able to increase...

Awareness of the need for compatible materials for the preservation of the architectural heritage has resulted in the revival of lime-based mortar technology and applications. However, knowledge of the preparation process and procedure influencing the final quality of lime mortars is limited, and controversy persists in the conservation community r...

Mixtures of clays are often used in the manufacture of bricks, with distinct additives for diverse ends. The firing process, however, determines the final properties of the material. In this work, ultrasound and mechanical tests have been combined with a statistical tool, the analysis of variance (ANOVA), to analyse the mineralogical and physical c...

Abstraet To establish the limit of applicability of laser radiation cleaning technique, different types of building stones have been tested. The selected stones differ in their chemical and minera-logical composition, colour texture and crystallinity degree. The experimentation was carried out with a Laser Nd:YAG 420mJ/6ns, energies were applied va...

Mineralogical, textural and chemical analyses of day-rich materials following firing, evidence that initial mineralogical differences between two raw materials (one with carbonates and the other without) influence the textural and mineralogical evolution of the ceramics as T increases from 700 to 1100 degreesC. Mineralogical and textural changes ar...

The fundamental behavior of sodium sulfate crystallization and induced decay in concrete and other building materials is still poorly understood, resulting in some misinterpretation and controversy. We experimentally show that under real world conditions, both thenardite (Na2SO4) and mirabilite (Na2SO4·10H2O) precipitate directly from a saturated s...

The interactions of two ionic surfactants on the decay of ornamental stone (porous limestone) by salt crystallization, a common and damaging weathering process, were studied. Conductivity and/or surface tension measurements allowed calculations of the critical micellar concentration (cmc) of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and cetyldimethylbenzylammon...

The weathering of different brick samples ina range of aggressive environments has been studied.Brick samples were prepared using two clay types (fromGranada, Spain), different additives, and a range offiring temperatures (850–1100 C). The brickscompositional and textural characteristics wereevaluated using XRD, SEM, hydric tests and mercuryintrusi...

Lime mortar has been used throughout history despite current substitution by hydraulic mortars (cements). The chemical composition of the lime used in its manufacture, however, is determined by local geology. In addition, the type of slaking, which depends on the amount of water used, gives rise to different types of lime. The result is that the be...

Honeycomb weathering is a common surface phenomenon affecting a variety of rocks in a range of environments. It develops on building stones and it shapes ocean cliffs, rocks in hot deserts, and Arctic landscapes. Honeycomb weathering may also help alter rocks on other planets, such as Mars. Although first noted in the nineteenth century, its origin...

An ancient Egyptian limestone sculpture was found to be undergoing major structural decay when stored in a museum environment. Mineralogical and petrographic analysis of the limestone showed a high proportion of clay (greater than or equal to 10% by weight) that was concentrated along bedding planes. The clay fraction consisted mostly of sepiolite...

A mineralogical study and multivariant geochemical analysis have been carried out to determine the sedimentation processes and the influence of surrounding rocks on sediments. Analyses were made on the clay fraction of sediments and on bulk samples of rocks from nearby reliefs in the Sorbas Basin (SE Spain). Source rocks were identified by statisti...

One type of Egyptian limestone from Naga el-Deir (Abydos/Thebes region) exhibits an ongoing problem of deterioration typified in the form of continued delamination of the surface in a stela from Naga el-Deir acquired from archaeological investigations carried out in the early 20th century. Previous testing of this limestone type indicated the prese...

Formation of authigenic dolomite within alteration crusts developing on limestone surfaces of a historical building is confirmed by XRD, polarising microscopy, and SEM with EDX data. Two different types of authigenic dolomite occur: limpid stoichiometric dolomite and Ca-rich ‘protodolomite’. The presence of gypsum, calcite, pollution-derived partic...

This work, for the first time, experimentally demonstrates the relationship between motor vehicle emissions and the decay of ornamental calcareous stone, by means of sulfation processes (the well-known phenomenon of Black-crust formation). The critical catalytic effects of carbon (soot) and metal-rich particles from vehicle exhaust result in the ac...

Se ha realizado un estudio geoquímico de la fracción arcillosa de los sedimentos miopliocenos y de la muestra total de rocas metamórficas de los relieves adyacentes con el fin de determinar las características geoquímicas del medio de sedimentación y la influencia de las rocas circundantes sobre los sedimentos. Tras relacionar elementos químicos co...

The origin and history of sedimentary rocks can be deciphered from the trace elements in their clay minerals. The inheritance from weathering profiles is detected by the analogy in trace-element amounts of the < 2-μm fractions of the sediments and the presumed parent rocks. The paleoenvironmental conditions are printed in the clay fraction by speci...