Douglas Fuchs

• University of Houston

Reading comprehension (RC) and word-problem solving (WPS) both involve text processing. Yet, despite evidence that RC text-structure intervention (RC.INT) improves RC, transfer to WPS has not been investigated. Similarly, despite evidence that WPS text-structure intervention (WP.INT) improves WPS, transfer to RC has not been examined. The purpose o...

The purpose of this analysis was to describe cognitive processes associated with comorbid difficulty between word reading (WR) and mathematics computation (MC) at the start of first grade among children selected for WR and MC delays. A sample of 234 children (mean age 6.50 years, SD = 0.31) was assessed on WR, MC, core cognitive processes (phonolog...

Variability in treatment effects is common in intervention studies using cluster randomized controlled trial (C-RCT) designs. Such variability is often examined in multilevel modeling (MLM) to understand how treatment effects (TRT) differ based on the level of a covariate (COV), called TRT \(\times \) COV. In detecting TRT \(\times \) COV effects u...

Analyses were conducted with second graders, drawn from an ongoing multi-cohort randomized controlled trial (RCT), who had been identified for RCT entry based on comorbid reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulty. To estimate pandemic learning loss, we contrasted fall performance for 3 cohorts: fall of 2019 (pre-pandemic; n = 47), 2...

This study's first purpose was to investigate effects of a fourth- and fifth-grade “next-generation” fraction intervention, which included six enhancements over a previously validated fraction intervention, designed to address career- and college-readiness standards. The study's second purpose was to assess effects of the next-generation fraction i...

This study’s purpose was to investigate effects of 3 intervention approaches for building working memory (WM) and improving word-problem solving (WPS). Children with mathematics difficulties (n = 240; 7.51 years [SD = .33]) were randomized to 4 conditions: a control group, general WM training with contiguous math practice, WPS intervention without...

Reading nonfiction texts with understanding is important to school success, yet many students struggle to do so. This randomized controlled trial extends previous research by contrasting an earlier iteration of a comprehension tutoring program (Comp) against a variant with strategies for transferring learning (Comp+Transfer). Participants were 189...

A cluster randomized controlled trial (C‐RCT) is common in educational intervention studies. Multilevel modelling (MLM) is a dominant analytic method to evaluate treatment effects in a C‐RCT. In most MLM applications intended to detect an interaction effect, a single interaction effect (called a conflated effect) is considered instead of level‐spec...

The purpose of this study was threefold: to examine unique and shared risk factors of comorbidity for reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties, to explore whether language minority (LM) learners are at increased risk of what we refer to as higher order comorbidity (reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties), and...

We examined longitudinal relations between 1st-grade cognitive predictors (early nonverbal reasoning, processing speed, listening comprehension, working memory, calculation skill, word-problem solving, word-reading fluency, attentive behavior, and numerical cognition) and 2nd-grade academic outcomes (calculations, word-problem solving, and word rea...

The purpose of this narrative synthesis of the curriculum-based measure (CBM) instructional utility literature is to deepen insight into the supports required to enrich teachers’ instructional decision-making within curriculum-based measure –data-based individualization (CBM-DBI) in ways that enhance the learning outcomes of students with intensive...

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) is a peer tutoring program available in the areas of reading and mathematics that incorporates peers as change agents in academic intervention. Developed at Vanderbilt University by Douglas Fuchs, Lynn S. Fuchs, and their colleagues, PALS is currently available in reading from kindergarten through high schoo...

The purposes of this study were to assess the effects of fractions intervention for students who are at risk for poor outcomes and to examine whether a component that combines self-regulated learning with growth-mindset instruction (SR-GM) provides added value for improving outcomes. At-risk students ( N = 84) were randomly assigned to three condit...

The purpose of this study was to examine word learning efficiency in at-risk first grade students (N = 93) participating in a yearlong study evaluating a multicomponent intervention targeting word reading and decoding skills. As part of each intervention lesson, students participated in a 1 to 3-min sight word reading activity in which high-frequen...

We attempted to strengthen an evidence-based, peer-mediated, first-grade reading program (First Grade Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies [PALS]) by modestly revising its content and adding a repeated-reading (RR) component. In a cluster-randomized trial, we conducted a component analysis of the revised program by creating two versions of it. “PALS+F...

We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a randomized control trial to explore this question: Does “response/no response” best characterize students’ reactions to a generally efficacious 1st-grade reading program, or is a more nuanced characterization necessary? Data were collected on 265 at-risk readers’ word reading prior to and immediately...

In this chapter, we provide an overview of Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies, widely known as PALS, a suite of validated, universal-tier programs, conducted by the classroom teacher in the general education classroom, with the primary goal of improving reading and mathematics outcomes for all learners in the general education classroom. In this cha...

The main purpose of this study was to test the effects of word-problem intervention, with versus without embedded language comprehension instruction, on at-risk 1st graders' word-problem performance. We also isolated the need for a structured approach to word-problem intervention and tested the efficacy of schema-based instruction at 1st grade. Chi...

We examined dynamic assessment’s (DA’s) added value over traditional assessments for identifying Spanish-speaking English learners’ (ELs) risk for developing mathematics disabilities, as a function of the language of test administration (English vs. Spanish), type of math outcome, and EL’s language dominance. At the start of first grade, ELs ( N =...

Background/Context The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) requires that all students with disabilities (SWD) receive a free, appropriate public education designed to meet their unique needs to prepare them for post-school education and employment (American Psychological Association, 2018). In the past two decades, momentum has...

Conventional research methods for understanding sources of individual differences in word-problem solving (WPS) only permit estimation of average relations between component processes and outcomes. The purpose of the present study was instead to examine whether and if so how the component processes engaged in WPS differ along the spectrum of WPS pe...

The focus of this article is the role of language comprehension within word-problem solving (WPS). The role of the language comprehension in WPS is explained, and an overview of research illustrating language comprehension’s contribution to WPS is described. Next, an innovative intervention that embeds word problem (WP)-specific language comprehens...

Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used in educational research to establish causality and develop effective practices. These research designs rely on a counterfactual model that, in simple form, calls for a comparison between a treatment group and control group. Developers of educational practices often assume that the population from...

The focus of this article is the well documented association between low working memory capacity and difficulty with mathematical word-problem solving. We begin by describing a model that specifies how various cognitive resources, including working memory, contribute to individual differences in word-problem solving and by then summarizing findings...

This study examines the core predictors of the covariance in reading and arithmetic fluency and the domain‐general cognitive skills that explain the core predictors and covariance. Seven‐year‐old Finnish children (N = 200) were assessed on rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness, letter knowledge, verbal counting, number writing, num...

The purpose of this study was to assess whether intervention with an integrated focus on fraction and decimal magnitude provides added value in improving rational number performance over intervention focused exclusively on fractions. We randomly assigned 4th graders with poor whole-number performance to 3 conditions: a business-as-usual control gro...

The purpose of this study was to explore the efficacy of fractions intervention with and without an embedded self-regulation (SR) component for third-grade students at risk for mathematics disabilities. Fractions intervention focused on magnitude understanding and word problems. Embedded SR was designed to support a growth mindset (fostering belief...

In this article, we discuss the approach adopted within the Vanderbilt University Learning Disabilities Innovation Hub, which focuses on students with higher‐order comorbidity: students with concurrent difficulty with reading comprehension and word‐problem solving. The aim of the Hub's Research Project is to test what we refer to as the higher‐orde...

We present 1st-grade, 2nd-grade, and 3rd-grade impacts for a 1st-grade intervention targeting the conceptual and procedural bases that support arithmetic. At-risk students (average age at pretest = 6.5) were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: a control group (n = 224) and 2 variants of the intervention (same conceptual instruction but different for...

This study explored the developmental trajectories and predictors of word reading and reading comprehension among young at-risk readers. In fall of 1st grade, 185 students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties were assessed on measures of domain-specific skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary), domain-general skil...

The purpose of this analysis was to assess whether effects of first-grade mathematics intervention apply across the range of at-risk learners’ initial skill levels. Students were randomly assigned to control (n = 213) and two variants of intervention (n = 385) designed to improve arithmetic. Of each 30-minute intervention session (48 over 16 weeks)...

Response to Intervention (RTI) was accepted in the early 2000s as a new framework for identifying learning difficulties (LD) in the U.S. In Finland, a similar multi-tiered framework has existed since 2010. In the present study, these frameworks are presented from the viewpoint of the role of assessment and instruction as expressed in documents that...

This study was designed to deepen insights on whether word-problem (WP) solving is a form of text comprehension (TC) and on the role of language in WPs. A sample of 325 second graders, representing high, average, and low reading and math performance, was assessed on (a) start-of-year TC, WP skill, language, nonlinguistic reasoning, working memory,...

The purpose of this study was to identify cognitive and linguistic predictors of word problems with versus without irrelevant information. The sample was 701 2nd-grade students who received no specialized intervention on word problems. In the fall, they were assessed on initial arithmetic and word-problem skill as well as language ability, working...

The purpose of this study was to examine child-level pathways in development of prealgebraic knowledge versus word-problem solving, while evaluating the contribution of calculation accuracy and fluency as mediators of foundational skills/processes. Children (n = 962; mean 7.60 years) were assessed on general cognitive processes and early calculatio...

In this chapter, the focus is on mathematics intervention at Tier 2 of multilevel response-to-intervention prevention systems. The authors begin by providing an overview of the principles involved in effective Tier 2 intervention and illustrating their application in a validated tutoring program for addressing students’ difficulty with word problem...

In this chapter, we describe a research-validated Tier II intervention program designed to prevent at-risk students from developing significant difficulty with fractions. We provide an overview of the instructional strategies used to improve at-risk students’ fraction magnitude understanding (i.e., comparing fractions, ordering fractions, and placi...

Children (n = 747; 6.5 years) were assessed on domain-general processes and mathematics and reading-related competencies (start of first grade), addition retrieval (end of second grade), and calculations and word reading (end of third grade). Attentive behavior, reasoning, visuospatial memory, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) indirectly contribut...

The purpose of this study was to assess the added value of dynamic assessment (DA) beyond more conventional static measures for predicting individual differences in year-end 1(st)-grade calculation (CA) and word-problem (WP) performance, as a function of limited English proficiency (LEP) status. At the start of 1(st) grade, students (129 LEP; 163 n...

The focus of the present study was enhancing word problem and calculation achievement in ways that support prealgebraic thinking among second-grade students at risk for mathematics difficulty. Intervention relied on a multitier support system (i.e., responsiveness to intervention, or RTI) in which at-risk students participate in general classroom i...

This study’s hypotheses were that (a) word-problem (WP) solving is a form of text comprehension that involves language comprehension processes, working memory, and reasoning, but (b) WP solving differs from other forms of text comprehension by requiring WP-specific language comprehension as well as general language comprehension. At the start of th...

This study examined the test-retest reliability and criterion validity of basal mastery tests of three widely used commercial reading series. Traditional correlational analyses as well as statistical procedures developed specifically for criterion-referenced tests were employed. Results indicated that the reliability and validity of the basal maste...

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether examiners' personal familiarity and professional experience with examinees affects handicapped children's test performance. Subjects were 22 handicapped preschoolers. Examiners were either experienced (N = 11) or inexperienced (N =11) with this group of children and with testing. Subjects were as...

This study assessed the effect of contrasting mastery learning on performance among high- and low-achieving students. Subjects were 48 high- and 40 low-achieving first graders, who received either a typical commercial basal reading series mastery learning treatment or an alternative mastery learning treatment that adhered more closely to principles...

The purpose of this study was to compare two types of teacher feedback, using an ongoing measurement system that involved students’ performance on a reading recall task. Twenty-two teachers were assigned randomly to two treatment groups. In the performance indicator feedback group, teachers received graphs that displayed students’ total number of c...

The purpose of this analysis was to examine achievement gaps on fractions for very-low-performing students as a function of whether they receive inclusive fraction instruction or specialized fraction intervention and with the shift to Common Core State Standards (CCSS). In three randomized control trials conducted in 3 consecutive years, 203 studen...

The purpose of the current study was to examine academic and cognitive profiles of first graders who responded adequately and inadequately to intensive small-group reading intervention (Tier 2), as well as assess how these profiles differ based on the criteria used for classification of unresponsiveness. Nonresponders were identified using two diff...

Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used in educational research to establish causality and develop effective practices. These research designs rely on a counterfactual model that, in simple form, calls for a comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Developers of educational practices often assume that the population fr...

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which teacher ratings of behavioral attention predicted responsiveness to word reading instruction in first grade and third-grade reading comprehension performance. Participants were 110 first grade students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties who received 20 weeks of intensive readi...

Three cohorts of third-grade students (N = 813) were evaluated on achievement, cognitive abilities, and behavioral attention according to contrasting research traditions in defining math learning disability (LD) status: low achievement versus extremely low achievement and IQ-achievement discrepant versus strictly low-achieving LD. We use methods fr...

This study examines whether explicit reading comprehension instruction is relevant for students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Forty-five students (Mage = 9 years) were randomly assigned to two conditions: control or intervention. Those assigned to the intervention condition received instruction on vocabulary, main idea ident...

The focus of this study was connections among 3 aspects of mathematical cognition at 2(nd) grade: calculations, word problems, and pre-algebraic knowledge. We extended the literature, which is dominated by correlational work, by examining whether intervention conducted on calculations or word problems contributes to improved performance in the othe...

Despite recent advances in the development of instructional interventions, many students with significant learning problems do not benefit from them. This includes 25% to 50% of students with learning disabilities (LD). In this article, we identify five limitations of current instructional programs that may help to explain students’ inadequate resp...

This study investigated contributions of general cognitive abilities and foundational mathematical competencies to numeration understanding (i.e., base-10 structure) versus multidigit calculation skill. Children (n = 394, M = 6.5 years) were assessed on general cognitive abilities and foundational numerical competencies at start of 1st grade; on th...

Nous decrivons ici le processus de mise a l’essai de deux nouvelles methodes d’enseignement de la comprehension en lecture destinees aux lecteurs debutants de milieu defavorise. Dans l’etude 1, six classes de deuxieme annee du primaire ont ete assignees a l’une de trois conditions : controle (enseignement regulier seulement), vocabulaire ou strateg...

This randomized control trial examined the efficacy of a multitiered supplemental tutoring program within a first-grade responsiveness-to-intervention prevention model. Struggling first-grade readers (n = 649) were screened and progress monitored at the start of the school year. Those identified as unresponsive to general education Tier 1 (n = 212)...

Stakeholders are debating the value of cognitively focused instruction for students who have not benefited from a skills-based approach. Much of the discussion, however, is occurring without recognition of research that has been conducted in the past 2 decades. In this article, we reviewed the research. Electronic databases and hard copies of schol...

In this article, we considered evidence from our intervention research programs on whether students with learning disability (LD) in reading and mathematics (comorbid LD) respond differently to intervention, compared to students with reading LD alone (RD) or to students with mathematics LD alone (MD). The goal was to gain insight into whether comor...

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of a dynamic assessment (DA) of decoding in predicting responsiveness to Tier 2 small-group tutoring in a response-to-intervention model. First grade students (n = 134) who did not show adequate progress in Tier 1 based on 6 weeks of progress monitoring received Tier 2 small-group tutoring in readin...

Response-to-intervention (RTI) models incorporate a screening process to identify students who appear to be at risk for learning disabilities (LDs). The purpose of this position article is to incorporate what is known about screening into a flexible, yet comprehensive screening system to help school psychologists and other school administrators in...

181 students with learning difficulties (LD) and 184 students without LD completed 4 brief, parallel tests under 4 conditions (standard, extended time, large print, students reading aloud). The authors (a) examined whether students with LD benefited from accommodations more than students without LD; (b) estimated "typical" accommodation boosts amon...

Examined the utility of a data-based assessment process to supplement teacher judgments about mathematics test accommodations. 192 4th- and 5th-grade students with learning disabilities (LD) and 181 students (mean age 9.59 yrs) without LD completed standard and extended time computations curriculum-based measurements (CBMs); 4 concepts and applicat...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 1st-grade number knowledge tutoring with contrasting forms of practice. Tutoring occurred 3 times per week for 16 weeks. In each 30-min session, the major emphasis (25 min) was number knowledge; the other 5 min provided practice in 1 of 2 forms. Nonspeeded practice reinforced relations and...

Simple in concept, far-reaching in implementation, Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) was developed in the 1980s as an efficient way to assess the progress of struggling students, including those with disabilities. Today, there are few areas of special education policy and practice that have not been influenced by CBM progress monitoring. The impac...

This study addressed predictors of the development of word problem solving (WPS) across the intermediate grades. At beginning of 3rd grade, 4 cohorts of students (N = 261) were measured on computation, language, nonverbal reasoning skills, and attentive behavior and were assessed 4 times from beginning of 3rd through end of 5th grade on 2 measures...

In a sample of 195 first graders selected for poor reading performance, the authors explored four cognitive predictors of later reading comprehension and reading disability (RD) status. In fall of first grade, the authors measured the children's phonological processing, rapid automatized naming (RAN), oral language comprehension, and nonverbal reas...

In this article, the authors consider the power and limitations of responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) for reducing the need for ongoing and intensive services for the segment of the school population traditionally identified as having a learning disability in mathematics. To assess the robustness of RTI, the authors describe four studies with str...

Response-to-intervention (RTI) approaches to disability identification are meant to put an end to the so-called wait-to-fail requirement associated with IQ discrepancy. However, in an unfortunate irony, there is a group of children who wait to fail in RTI frameworks. That is, they must fail both general classroom instruction (Tier 1) and small-grou...

During the past decade, responsiveness to intervention (RTI) has become popular among many practitioners as a means of transforming schooling into a multilevel prevention system. Popularity aside, its successful implementation requires ambitious intent, a comprehensive structure, and coordinated service delivery. An effective RTI also depends on bu...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the contributions of domain-general cognitive resources and different forms of arithmetic development to individual differences in pre-algebraic knowledge. Children (n = 279, mean age = 7.59 years) were assessed on 7 domain-general cognitive resources as well as arithmetic calculations and word problems...

The purpose of this study was to assess the value of dynamic assessment (DA; degree of scaffolding required to learn unfamiliar mathematics content) for predicting 1(st)-grade calculations (CA) and word problems (WP) development, while controlling for the role of traditional assessments. Among 184 1(st) graders, predictors (DA, Quantity Discriminat...

The purpose of this study was to examine the construct and predictive validity of a dynamic assessment (DA) of decoding learning. Students (N = 318) were assessed in the fall of first grade on an array of instruments that were given in hopes of forecasting responsiveness to reading instruction. These instruments included DA as well as one-point-in-...

In this study, the authors explore a newly constructed dynamic assessment (DA) intended to tap inference-making skills that they hypothesize will be predictive of future comprehension performance. The authors administered the test to 100 second-grade children using a dynamic format to consider the concurrent validity of the measure. The dynamic por...

The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of a dynamic assessment (DA) of algebraic learning in predicting third graders' development of mathematics word-problem difficulty. In the fall, 122 third-grade students were assessed on a test of math word-problem skill and DA of algebraic learning. In the spring, they were assessed on word-prob...

Functional imaging research has yielded evidence of changes in poor readers after instructional intervention. Although it is well established that within the group of children with poor reading there are differences in behavioral response to intervention, little is know about the functional correlates of responsiveness. Therefore, we acquired funct...

Children with learning problems require early intervention. If it is evidence based and implemented with integrity and intensity, it will accelerate the academic progress of many students. This is the hope and expectation of the many supporters of responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI). A minority of children, however, will not respond sufficiently t...

Students' inattention is predictive of reading problems and of non-response to effective reading intervention. In this randomized study, 58 first-grade classrooms located in 30 schools were assigned to a control condition or to one of two intervention conditions. In these last two conditions, peer-tutoring activities were conducted to improve class...

The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive and academic profiles associated with learning disability (LD) in reading comprehension, word reading, applied problems, and calculations. The goal was to assess the specificity hypothesis, in which unexpected underachievement associated with LD is represented in terms of distinctive patterns o...

The purpose of this study was to examine the interplay between basic numerical cognition and domain-general abilities (such as working memory) in explaining school mathematics learning. First graders (N = 280; mean age = 5.77 years) were assessed on 2 types of basic numerical cognition, 8 domain-general abilities, procedural calculations, and word...

Two aspects of mathematics with which students with mathematics learning difficulty (MLD) often struggle are word problems and number-combination skills. This article describes a math program in which students receive instruction on using algebraic equations to represent the underlying problem structure for three word-problem types. Students also l...

Contributions of domain-general and domain-specific numerical competencies were assessed on first graders' number combination skill (NC) and word-problem skill (WP). Students (n=205) between 5 and 7 years of age were assessed on 2 aspects of numerosity, 8 domain-general abilities, NC, and WP. Both aspects of numerosity predicted NC when controlling...

The purpose of this study was to determine if event-related potential (ERP) data collected during three reading-related tasks (Letter Sound Matching, Nonword Rhyming, and Nonword Reading) could be used to predict short-term reading growth on a curriculum-based measure of word identification fluency over 19 weeks in a sample of 29 first-grade childr...

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of schema-broadening instruction (SBI) on second graders' word-problem-solving skills and their ability to represent the structure of word problems using algebraic equations. Teachers (n = 18) were randomly assigned to conventional word-problem instruction or SBI word-problem instruction, which ta...

It is currently considered imperative to introduce reading instruction as early as possible. This proposition was tested by assigning groups of kindergarteners (N = 256) to two conditions differing in their emphasis on prevention. In the first, teacher-implemented research-based interventions were implemented during kindergarten and first grade. In...

The purposes of this study were (a) to identify measures that when added to a base 1(st)-grade screening battery help eliminate false positives and (b) to investigate gains in efficiency associated with a 2-stage gated screening procedure. We tested 355 children in the fall of 1(st) grade, and assessed for reading difficulty at the end of 2(nd) gra...

Practitioners are increasingly expected to provide reading instruction to students with intellectual disabilities to help them become literate. Whereas explicit, systematic reading instruction is effective at preventing reading difficulties for most young children, its effectiveness for children with intellectual disabilities remains unclear. The s...

The primary purpose of this study was to assess the effects of strategic counting instruction, with and without deliberate practice with those counting strategies, on number combination (NC) skill among students with mathematics difficulties (MD). Students (n = 150) were stratified on MD status (i.e., MD alone vs. MD with reading difficulty) and si...

This article introduces a framework for the remediation of number combination (NC) deficits. Research on the remediation of NC deficits is summarized, and research program studies are used to illustrate the 3 approaches to remediation. The Framework comprises a 2-stage system of remediation. The less intensive stage implementing 1 of 3 intervention...

This paper presents application of machine learning methods on a 356 sample dataset for early prediction of reading disability among first graders. A wide array of classifiers consisting of Support Vector Machines, Decision Trees (CART and C4.5), Linear Discriminant Analysis, k Nearest Neighbor and Naïve Bayes Classifiers were used in this study. M...

Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI) is widely understood as representing a multilevel framework that integrates assessment and instruction to provide strong early intervention and valid methods of disability identification. There are currently many approaches to RTI, which are creating confusion among educators as they try to conceptualize, design...

Phonological awareness (PA) is the ability to hear and manipulate the smallest units of sound in our language. It is key to learning to read for typically developing children. Some have suggested that this is not true for children with Down syndrome (DS). The purpose of this review was to provide a better understanding of the role PA plays for chil...