David Nagel

George Washington University | GW

Graphical abstract for LENR review article.

The rise in the Earth's surface temperature on an annual basis has stimulated scientific and engineering interest in developing and implementing alternative energy sources. Besides cost, the main requirements for alternative energy sources are renewability and environmental friendliness. A prominent representative that allows the production of "gre...

This perspective explores future research approaches on the use of noise characteristics of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices as a diagnostic tool to assess their quality and reliability. Such a technique has been applied to electronic devices. In comparison to these, however, MEMS have much more diverse materials, structures, and trans...

Lattice Enabled (or Low Energy) Nuclear Reactions (LENR) have great promise as distributed and cost-effective sources of clean energy, free of dangerous radiation, residual radioactivity and greenhouse gases. Much expensive research and development is needed to realize that promise. However and whenever commercialization happens, the intersection o...

There is a small literature on the combination of low energy nuclear reactions (LENR) experiments and radiofrequencies (RF). The papers are worth attention in case they can teach anything about the mechanisms behind LENR. Application of RF to LENR electrochemical cells in the mid-1990s clearly showed increases in the production of excess power. Mor...

Nuclear transmutations are reported in many low-energy nuclear reaction (LENR) experiments. We showed in a previous study (Scholkmann and Nagel, J. Condensed Matter Nucl. Sci. 13 (2014) 485–494) that (i) the transmutation data of three independent experiments have a similar pattern and (ii) this pattern correlates with a model-based on the predicti...

The energy gain of a system is defined as the ratio of its output energy divided by the energy provided to operate the system. Most familiar systems have energy gains less than one due to various inefficiencies. By contrast, lattice-enabled nuclear reactions (LENR) offer high energy gains. Theoretical values in excess of 1000 are possible. Energy g...

Thousands of lattice-enabled nuclear reaction (LENR) experiments involving electrochemical loading of deuterium into palladium have been conducted and reported in hundreds of papers. But, it appears that the first commercial LENR power generators will employ gas loading of hydrogen onto nickel. This article reviews the scientific base for LENR in t...

A creative combination of hardware and software has produced a new digital noise spectroscopy system. It provides a low cost, user-friendly, rapid, non-destructive and non-invasive capability to acquire noise spectra. Thorough testing showed that the system has a very low noise floor (3×10-17 V2/Hz), as well as a broad frequency range (1 to 105 Hz)...

Nuclear transmutations were reported in many low-energy nuclear reaction (LENR) experiments. In the present study, we analyzed (i) whether three available nuclear transmutation data sets show a consistent pattern and (ii) whether this pattern correlates with a model-based prediction of Widom and Larsen. Our analysis revealed that the data sets (i)...

Some theories of the mechanisms active in producing Lattice Enabled (or Low Energy) Nuclear Reactions (LENR) predict the formation of compact objects with binding energies and sizes intermediate between those of atoms and nuclei. The existence of compact objects remains unproven. But, if such objects exist and are formed during what are now called...

In two electrochemical transmutation experiments, unexpected oscillations in the recorded signals with a daily period were observed for deuterium/palladium loading ratio (D/Pd), temperature (T) and pressure (P). The aim of the present study was to analyze the time courses of the signals of one of the experiments using an advanced signal-processing...

"Low energy nuclear reactions" or LENR is the name now given to what was initially and poorly called "cold fusion". Over twenty years of scientific research on LENR have resulted in some instances of energy gains exceeding 10, the same value as the goal of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, which could be achieved in about a deca...

We designed, fabricated and tested a novel compact fluorescence analysis system for quantification of uric acid (UA) in clinical samples at the point-of-care. To perform an analysis, diluted saliva, urine or blood samples are simply placed in a disposable thin-film sample holder using a dropper. A new enzyme immobilization technique was developed t...

Energy gain is defined as the energy realized from reactions divided by the energy required to produce those reactions. Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) have already been measured to significantly exceed the energy gain of 10 projected from ITER,possibly 15 years from now. Electrochemical experiments using the Pd-D system have shown energy gains...

Resorufin is a fluorescent reporter molecule, the end product in a variety of biochemical analyses. In such assays, excitation sources with high intensity are desirable for fast and precise results. However, high intensity sources bleach resorufin. We report quantitative bleaching rates for resorufin subjected to green excitation over an irradiance...

With low energy x-rays, such as those from a Cu x-ray tube, only the outer few microns of a metallic sample can be probed. This low penetrating power prohibits structural studies from being carried out on the interior of an electrode in an electrochemical cell because of absorption by the cell material, electrodes and the electrolyte. The work desc...

Small craters have been observed frequently in the surfaces of cathodes from electrochemical LENR experiments. They are generally 1-100 μm in size. The craters vary widely in shape and areal distribution. Two methods were used to determine the energies needed to produce such craters. The resulting energies range from nJ to mJ, depending on the crat...

Optical fluorescence and absorption are two of the primary techniques used for analytical microfluidics. We provide a thorough yet tractable method for computing the performance of diverse optical micro-analytical systems. Sample sizes range from nano- to many micro-liters and concentrations from nano- to milli-molar. Equations are provided to trac...

This study was initiated due to the concern of some critics of LENR research that small energy changes in many H¬2O or D2O molecules in electrochemical cells can explain observed excess heat. More than three hundred LENR papers from 1989 to 2008 that reported excess energy were acquired and reviewed to extract quantitative results and other informa...

This review provides a comprehensive survey of noise research in MEMS. Some background on noise and on MEMS is provided. We review noise production mechanisms, and highlight work on the theory and modeling of noise in MEMS. Then noise measurements in the specific types of MEMS are reviewed. Inertial MEMS (accelerometers and angular rate sensors), p...

The purpose of this paper is to employ the QALT procedure on single axis accelerometers from Analog Device and Freescale. Laser-precision apparatus was designed, built, and employed to provide three types of excitations with great accuracy; mechanical (gravitational) test, thermal test and acoustical test. These tests are designed to mimic the oper...

A special measurement system is developed to measure the combined noise and reliability of a three-axis micro-accelerometer. Three parametric tests are provided: gravitational, thermal and acoustical. The measurements were performed on both the in-plane and the out-of-plane axes. The temperature-dependence and acceleration-dependence of the noise w...

Results of self-consistent band structure calculations are used to evaluate the K, L, and M x-ray emission and absorption spectra of vanadium metal. The K and L spectra are in generally good agreement with experiment in the overall shapes and widths. Variations between the calculations and measurements are similar in magnitude to variations between...

Results on the energy band structure of Ti intermetallic compounds are presented. The calculations were performed by the augmented plane wave method for different values of the statistical exchange parameter and two different electron configurations. Good agreement with transport data was obtained.

The integration of electronics and optics with miniature fluidic systems has produced remarkable capabilities that have spawned a new industry, primarily in the past decade. Devices made by several companies, most of them start-ups, enable point-of-care analyses for clinical samples and on-site field studies, as well as providing instruments for re...

WSN nodes are usually powered by batteries. Power consumption depends on the different hardware and software components in a WSN node and their various activities. Both correct transmission using hashing and protection of messages using encryption in sensor nodes require additional energy. In order to determine the life of the battery, we must know...

The integration of semiconductor electronics and diverse optics with miniature MEMS fluidic systems has produced remarkable capabilities, which have spawned a new industry, primarily in the past decade. Microfluidics devices made by several companies, most of them start-ups, enable point-of-care analyses for clinical samples and on-site field studi...

A noise measurements of micro-accelerometers were performed using a special measurement system. A common spectral behavior of noise is found, with 1/f noise dominating at low frequencies and white thermal noise being the limiting factor at higher frequencies. A temperature dependent and an acceleration dependant of the noise are found in the accele...

This paper examines the evidence for LENR occurring on or very near to the surface of materials. Several types of experimental indications for LENR surface reactions have been reported and will be reviewed. LENR result in two types of products, energy and the appearance of new elements. The level of instantaneous power production can be written as...

This paper describes our strategy to operate WSN with or without security based on our measurements of energy consumption using CrossBow and Ember sensor nodes. It was found that the node microcontroller's CPU operates for substantially longer times for both hashing and encryption operations compared to the time for handling messages without any se...

The authors performed the low frequency noise measurement (LFNM) technique to study noise characteristics of commercial accelerometers with single and dual axis. In this work, we studied the noise characteristics of a three-axis accelerometer using an improved and sensitive test setup to avoid cross-axis distortion.

WSN nodes are usually powered by batteries. Energy consumption during node operation determines battery life. Power consumption depends on the different hardware and software components in a WSN node and their various activities. In order to determine the life of the battery, we must measure the energy consumption of a node that is active in a netw...

Both correct transmission using hashing and protection of messages using encryption in sensor nodes require additional energy. This paper describes our measurement results for energy consumption in CrossBow and Ember sensor nodes for the process of exchanging data messages between nodes both in the clear and in a protected form. Full strength algor...

Noise measurements of micro-accelerometers were performed using a special measurement system. A common spectral behavior of noise is found, with 1/f noise dominating at low frequencies and white thermal noise being the limiting factor at higher frequencies. Unexpected resonances are also observed in the commercial devices. Most importantly, an acce...

A wide range of targets was bombarded with rare gas ions, mostly at 100 keV. Strong continua were observed in the 8-12eV (100-160 nm) range. They are due to the decay of bound-excited rare gas molecules (excimers). The dose dependence of the continuum intensity was measured. Also, experiments were performed in which targets previously implanted wit...

Semiconductor and other materials with dimensions on the scale of micrometers or nanometers are being made into chemical and biological sensors. Besides being small, such devices are highly capable, low power and relatively inexpensive. They have many applications in personal health and safety, and for control of industrial processes.

Sensors are systems or devices that provide signals, which are correlated to some physical, chemical, or biological condition in their neighborhood. The signals can be transformed, by use of a calibration curve, into information about the environment of a sensor. There are two classes of sensors, point sensors that provide information only from the...

Low-energy nuclear reaction (LENR) measurements are significantly and increasingly reproducible. Practical control of the production of energy or materials by LENR has yet to be demonstrated. Minimization of costly inputs and maximization of desired outputs of LENR remain for future developments.

The experimental evidence for anomalies in metal deuterides, including excess heat and nuclear emissions, suggests the existence of new physical effects.

Nanotechnology is certain to improve existing sensors and be a strong force in developing new ones. The field is progressing, but considerable work must be done before its full impact is seen. Among the obvious challenges are reducing the cost of materials and devices, improving reliability, and packaging the devices into useful products.

This chapter provides an overview of micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS). The sequential steps in their production are then reviewed, namely design, simulation, fabrication, packaging, and testing. The reliability of MEMS is considered from the viewpoint of their performance in actual applications. The applications of micromachined static MEMS,...

Pd employed as cathodes in cold fusion experiments contains various defects, each of which has an associated energy. In principle, some of the energy in Pd due to defects that exist before a cold fusion experiment could be released as apparent excess heat during the experiment. Energy densities were computed for high concentrations of vacancies, im...

The detection of materials or devices for nuclear or radiological weapons of mass destruction (NRWMD) is fundamentally important to both homeland security and to military operations. Detection technologies are necessary both to find and to verify the location of materials, components, and systems for NRWMD. They are also central to actions taken af...

Further investigations of the noise characteristics of MEMS accelerometers at different accelerations are presented. In the previously published work, the results show 1/f-type noise at low frequencies and white noise at high frequencies. The magnitude of the noise spectral density is acceleration dependent. In this paper, we probe further to inves...

The noise characteristics of microelectromechanical systems accelerometers at different accelerations are presented. The general experimental results show 1/f-type noise at low frequencies and white Gaussian noise at high frequencies. The magnitude of the noise spectral density is acceleration dependent. The results also show spectral peaks origina...

TiH2 and TiD2 thick targets were bombarded with 100 to 200 keV protons. Evidence for nuclear reactions was obtained by means of a surface barrier particle detector. Proton irradiation of TiD2 produced the following observations: alpha particle emission identified as (p,alpha) reactions from 11B and 7Li impurities in the target at ppm concentrations...

The ready availability of MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors and other microsensors makes it possible to use modern manufacturing technologies to produce affordable and highly functional groupings (clusters) of the small and capable sensors. They beneficially share computational, communication and power resources. Printed circuit boards...

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are devices that have static or movable components with dimensions on the scale of a micrometer. One particular device that is widely used commercially is the MEMS accelerometer. Such accelerometers typically contain some movable micro beams that measure acceleration in one or two orthogonal directions. Major m...

The total laser energy (3–32 J), temporal history (40 ns full width at half maximum) and focal energy distribution (3×1013 W/cm2 peak, 1.5×1013 W/cm2 average) for λ=1.06 μm Nd:glass laser interactions with planar Al targets were measured. Laser-produced plasma emissions within the 1–3 keV x-ray range were recorded, with limited measurements in the...

The variety and applications of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices have increased dramatically, improving existing uses or enabling entirely new ones. This article surveys some of the current and projected applications of MEMS

MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors and other micro-sensors are now readily available. This makes it possible to use modern manufacturing technologies to produce affordable and highly functional groupings (clusters) of the small and capable sensors. They beneficially share computational, communication and power resources. Printed circuit...

Densities of states for the ordered intermetallic compound TiNi, decomposed by site and symmetry, have been computed using the APW method. Of the fourteen valence electrons per unit cell, 7.2 were found to be in d like states localized on the Ni site. These results are useful for interpretation of the shapes and intensities of valence band X ray sp...

Techniques are described for obtaining simultaneous spatial and spectral resolution of X-rays emitted by high-temperature plasmas formed when fine wires are exploded. Good spatial and moderate spectral resolutions are obtained with a pinhole camera containing multiple films. Small pinches emitting predominantly soft radiation and larger 'flare' reg...

K, L and M resonance and inner-shell X-ray line spectra have been recorded from high-energy-density exploded-wire plasmas for elements throughout the periodic table. Analysis of the resonance spectra shows that the following ionization stages were attained in dense pinches in the plasmas: He-like Cu27+, Ni-like Ag37+ and Ni-like Au51+. Using a coro...

A survey of spectra excited by 3-4.5 MeV noble gas ions striking solid targets was made in the range from less than 50 eV to 1.5 keV (8-250 A) using a grazing-incidence spectrograph. K hypersatellite energies were obtained for the elements Be through Ne, and are compared with other hypersatellite data. Correct identifications of hypersatellite tran...

Several wireless networks of widely distributed smart sensors are in place or under development. They already include traffic, environmental, weather and earthquake monitors. Uses range from ordinary operations, safety and security through crisis management to military operations. Sensor networks are made possible because of the commercial availabi...

The coordinated exploitation of modern communication, micro- sensor and computer technologies makes it possible to give global reach to our senses. Web-cameras for vision, web- microphones for hearing and web-'noses' for smelling, plus the abilities to sense many factors we cannot ordinarily perceive, are either available or will be soon. Applicati...

MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) are a new frontier in miniaturization. Optics and MEMS have a natural synergism. On the one hand, optical techniques are basic to the manufacturing of MEMS. On the other hand, a wide variety of MEMS have already been demonstrated to produce, manipulate or detect optical radiation. The "optical" range of wavelen...

Facile, integrated and comprehensive software is needed for the design of processes, models and simulation, which are required for effective production of MEMS and microsystems. The characteristics of computer-aided design software now available from seven companies are reviewed. Three of the firms have roots in microelectronics, and three were for...

Facile, integrated and comprehensive software is needed for the design of processes, models and simulation, which are required for effective production of MEMS and microsystems. The characteristics of computer-aided design software now available from seven companies are reviewed. Three of the firms have roots in microelectronics, and three were for...

MEMS technology is now where integrated circuit technology was about 30 years ago. It is clearly going to be pervasively important. Both commercial volume and patents on MEMS are growing at rates exceeding 20% annually. The teaching of MEMS technology, now in its early stages, must keep pace. Most universities with an engineering program will have...

The paper is concerned with the design phase of MOEMS. It should, in principle, include three subphases. While they can be considered and performed separately, these phases are interactive and should be performed iteratively. The first phase is optical or functional design. It involves choosing the geometry and optical characteristics (materials) f...

The questions raised by reports of nuclear reactions at low energies, so called `cold fusion', are not yet answered to the satisfaction of many scientists. Further experimental investigations of these and related questions seems desirable, at least for scientific if not practical reasons. Properly conducted, such investigations would be indistingui...

Until recently, accelerometer manufacturing appeared to be a reasonably mature field. But, this situation changed rapidly when researchers began to build miniature accelerometers using micron scale lithographic techniques developed for producing integrated circuits. Several micro‐ electro‐mechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometers are now available c...

We have used x rays in the 9--15-A band emitted from a solid target of BaF[sub 2] irradiated by [similar to]120 mJ of 248-nm radiation in a 650-fs full width at half maximum Gaussian laser pulse to characterize spectroscopically the resulting ultrashort-pulse laser-produced plasma. The emission was spectrally resolved but space and time integrated....

The use of recently developed high brightness subpicosecond lasers for the study of the interaction of solid matter is leading to the production of powerful incoherent X-ray sources associated with dense plasma environments. The use of these intense pulsed X-ray sources will enable the production of extremely high densities and levels of electronic...

Studies of the interaction of condensed matter with short pulse (∼ 600 fs) high intensity (∼10¹⁷ W/cm²) ultraviolet (248 nm) radiation show that intense spatially compact sources for x‐ray emission in the kilovolt range (0.5–1.0×10¹⁵ W/cm²) can be generated from solid targets at close to the maximum volum...

Plasma produced from ultraviolet-transmitting solid targets undergoing intense (>10¹⁶ W/cm²) subpicosecond (∼600 fs) ultraviolet (248 nm) irradiation have been studied under conditions for which no interfering prepulse plasma is generated. Time and spatially integrated measurements of the x-ray emission for H-like and He-like Mg and Si were found t...

The energy penetration depth characteristic of the interaction of intense subpicosecond (∼600 fs) ultraviolet (248 nm) laser radiation with solid density material has been experimentally determined. This was accomplished by using a series of ultraviolet transmitting targets consisting of a fused silica (SiO 2 ) substrate coated with an 80–600 nm la...

X‐ray fluorescence analysis was applied to the determination of the concentration of trace elements in the growth rings of trees. Some of these mineral elements can affect the growth and development of the plant. The results of the analytical measurements can provide information concerning the geochemical and atmospheric environment to which the tr...

It has been well established over recent years that synchrotron radiation possesses some unique features as a source of primary x-rays for x-ray fluorescence analysis. Advantage has been taken of the high intensity emanating from the bending magnets of storage rings to develop x-ray microprobes utilizing apertures or focussing optics, or both, to p...

Plasmas produced by subpicosecond laser excitation of solid targets can produce bright short x-ray pulses[1] for x-ray laser pumping[2]. This type of plasma is unusual because it is hot (electron temperature in keV range), dense (near solid density) and highly non-equilibrium. It is particularly advantageous to use subpicosecond excitation to inves...

Damage of single‐crystal Si induced by 25‐ns pulses from a ruby laser (694 nm) has been studied after retrieval of the samples. Macroscopic evaluation was made using optical microscopy and measurement of the surface profiles. Microscopic study techniques included Laue and topographic x‐ray methods as well as x‐ray rocking curves. Cleavage affected...

We discuss the conversion efficiency and spectral characteristics of x‐ray sources produced by focusing 0.26 μm radiation on targets. We optimize the x‐ray emission in given spectral ranges by choosing the appropriate target atomic number and irradiation conditions. We study the exposure of PBS photoresist with well characterized subkilovolt and ki...

Spatially resolved soft x‐ray spectra were collected for neon plasmas produced by imploding hollow annular gas puffs with MA level driving currents. The Z‐pinch imploded plasmas were studied for different risetime currents produced with or without the use of a plasma erosion opening switch (PEOS). Selected spectrograms were processed and analyzed t...

Laser produced X-ray spectra are studied both theoretically and experimentally in the range 0.1-5 keV for laser wavelengths λ = 0.26 μm and λ = 0.53 μm. The X-ray conversion efficiencies in various spectral ranges are presented. It is possible to obtain from a laser plasma source a well characterized X-ray spectra. As an example of application, the...

Multimillion-degree plasmas are bright (intense, small, short-pulsed) sources of x-radiation. They can be heated by high-power electrical discharges or lasers. Plasmas generated by absorption of sub-microsecond laser pulses are intensely studied for scientific and technological reasons.

Soft x‐ray diagnostics were developed for acquiring spectra in the 6–60 Å wavelength region in rectangular‐focused laser beam experiments. The line targets were prepared by a microlithographic method. Convex‐curved crystal and grazing‐incidence grating spectrographs collected spatially‐resolved alumium spectral data. A two‐dimensional hydrodynamic...

Laser created X-ray sources have been investigated both theoretically and experimentally using λ = 1.06 μm and λ = 0.26 μm and short pulses (0.5 nsec). Some preliminary results are given with UV radiation obtained with a long pulse (25 nsec) excimer laser. The con-version efficiency of the X-ray emission in the sub-keV (0.1-0.75 keV) and keV (0.75-...

This chapter discusses the plasma sources for X-Ray lithography. In the past decade, X-ray lithography has moved from a laboratory demonstration to the production line use of prototype equipment. The many advantages of X-ray lithography, especially, resolution, throughput, and yield, bode well for its future. Full-wafer exposures are providing valu...

X-Ray optics can be broadly classified as being either reflective or transmissive, with either broad or narrow band pass, configured to be either non-focusing or focusing. Multilayers which reflect (diffract) soft x-rays with intermediate resolution, which can be elastically bent into either convex, non-focusing or concave, focusing geometries, are...

A 10-Hz Nd:YAG laser system with 0.6-J, 25-nsec pulses was used to produce plasmas which emitted strongly in the soft x-ray region. Spectral, temporal, and spatial characteristics of these plasma emissions are presented together with an application of the source to soft x-ray lithography.

A high vacuum soft x-ray source has been coupled to a large volume experimental chamber to provide a versatile facility for x-ray investigations in the energy range of 0.1 to 10 kev. The source chamber presently contains a modified Herike tube, but can employ any of a variety of source designs. The large experimental chamber is equipped with a kine...

Intense extreme ultraviolet (XUV) radiation has a variety of research and production applications. Emission in the 30–300 Å range has been measured from noble gas plasmas created by puffing gas into the Pithon electron beam generator at Physics International Co. Spectral, spatial, and temporal measurements from neon, argon, krypton, and xenon plasm...

The optical and mechanical designs of a monochromatic beam line being built by the Naval Research Laboratory on the X-ray ring at the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) are described. The line contains a dynamically bent collimating first mirror, a fixed-exit two-crystal monochromator designed and built at the National Bureau of Standards (NB...

A systematic study of the minimum detection limits obtainable with synchrotron radiation continuum excitation has been made for thin samples of 10 elements distributed across the periodic table. Energy dispersion and wavelength dispersion measurements are included; the results show that both techniques achieve comparable values, ranging from 10** m...

Multilayer X-ray reflectors which have layers that vary in thickness, either in depth or laterally along the surface, were prepared by sputtering. Alternating layers of W and C were deposited on flexible mica and smooth silicon-wafer substrates. X-ray diffraction properties of the multilayers were measured in the 1.54-8.34 A region. The multilayer...

A new beam line for X-ray lithography with photon energies near 100 eV has been installed on the SURF-II storage ring at the National Bureau of Standards. Vacuum isolation of the ring from the exposure chamber is achieved using both a thin carbon window and a baffle cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. The design and performance of the beam line...

Possible designs, characteristics and uses of multilayer diffraction elements in which the layer thickness is non-uniform are discussed.

XUV and X-ray plasma diagnostics were performed on several relativistic electron beam generators. The data yield information on the spectral, temporal and spatial behavior of radiation in the 40 eV-6 keV range for the elements Al, Ti, Cr, Fe, and Ni as well as the noble gases Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe. Temperatures, electron densities, and emitting volume...

This chapter reports on the first part of a program to define the capabilities of synchrotron radiation (SR) excitation for the analysis of low-concentration ''thin'' samples of elements spanning much of the periodic table. It attempts to synopsize the available data and to compare results obtained by alternative methods of x-ray analysis. It discu...

Layered synthetic microstructures (LSM's) are useful dispersing devices for x-ray spectroscopy. They can be produced with virtually any layer spacing (d) greater than approximately 10 Å and they have high diffraction efficiency. Integral reflection coefficients for such structures made up of alternating layers of a transition metal and carbon are 3...