David Gramaje

• Ph.D. Plant Pathology
• Científico Titular CSIC at Institute of Grapevine and Wine Sciences

AimsThe study aimed to assess comparatively the accuracy and efficiency of three culture media protocols for estimating black-foot disease pathogens populations in soils and to examine how shifts in the abundance and composition of black-foot pathogens correspond to changes in specific soil properties. Methods Firstly, culture media were compared b...

Species of Diaporthe are considered important plant pathogens, saprobes, and endophytes on a wide range of plant hosts. Several species are well-known on grapevines, either as agents of pre- or post-harvest infections, including Phomopsis cane and leaf spot, cane bleaching, swelling arm and trunk cankers. In this study we explore the occurrence, di...

Fungal trunk diseases are some of the most destructive diseases of grapevine in all grape growing areas of the world. Management of GTDs has been intensively studied for decades with some great advances made in our understanding of the causal pathogens, their epidemiology, impact, and control. However, due to the breadth and complexity of the probl...

This paper represents the second contribution in the Genera of Phytopathogenic Fungi (GOPHY) series. The series provides morphological descriptions and information regarding the pathology, distribution, hosts and disease symptoms for the treated genera. In addition, primary and secondary DNA barcodes for the currently accepted species are inlcuded....

BACKGROUND Black‐foot disease is one of the main soilborne fungal diseases affecting grapevine production worldwide. Two field experiments were established to evaluate the effect of white mustard cover crop residue amendment and chemical fumigation with propamocarb + fosetyl‐Al combined with Trichoderma spp. root treatment on the viability of black...

This study investigates the impact of Dactylonectria macrodidyma on fungal community dynamics in grapevines grown in sandy and clay soils, highlighting how soil properties in uence pathogen-induced disruptions. High-throughput sequencing and microbial network analyses revealed that D. macrodidyma signi cantly reduces fungal diversity in root microb...

The success of grafting in grapevine nurseries can vary significantly depending on the wood used, even if the same scion and rootstock are used, yet the underlying causes of this variation remain poorly understood. To elucidate the factors influencing grafting success, rootstock wood (Vitis berlandieri x V. rupestris cv. 110 Richter) from ten produ...

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a crucial role in enhancing the health and productivity of host plants, including grapevine. By forming symbiotic relationships with plant roots, AMF significantly improve water uptake and nutrient absorption, particularly phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). This study evaluated the microbiome composition and AM...

Viticulture faces global warming challenge, prompting focus on sustainable practices. Organic mulches, an alternative to conventional practices, have shown the potential to enhance plant performance and soil quality. However, their impact on soil and must microbiota remains unexplored. Our three-year study, conducted in two vineyards located in Log...

Infection of grapevines by fungal pathogens causing grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) primarily arises from annual pruning wounds made during the dormant season. While various studies have showcased the efficacy of products in shielding pruning wounds against GTDs infections, most of these investigations hinge on artificial pathogen inoculations, whi...

Grapevine productivity worldwide is increasingly threatened by global warming, potentially exacerbating water scarcity. This study examines drought's effects on grapevine xylem's fungal communities, particularly regarding Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, linked to esca and Petri diseases. Investigating one-year-old grafted grapevines under varied water...

With a reduction on available chemical treatments, there is an increased interest on biological control of grapevine trunk diseases. Few studies have investigated the impact of introducing beneficial microorganisms in rhizosphere, on the indigenous soil existent microbiome. In this study, we explored the effect of two biological control agents, Tri...

In viticulture, an intensive pesticide schedule is often required to control fungal and oomycete diseases and meet production standards. Accordingly, a reduction of synthetic fungicides and the application of environmentally-friendly crop protection alternatives are becoming increasingly important for a more sustainable viticulture. Even though the...

Species from the Botryosphaeriaceae family are the causal agents of Botryosphaeria dieback (BD), a worldwide grapevine trunk disease. Because of their lifestyle and their adaptation to a wide range of temperatures, these fungi constitute a serious threat to vineyards and viticulture, especially in the actual context of climate change. Grapevine pla...

Two cases of phaeohyphomycotic infections were caused by Phaeoacremonium tuscanicum, not previously identified in human infections, and one new species, Phaeoacremonium indicum, respectively. Morphological and cultural investigation as well as phylogenetic analysis was constructed based on maximum likelihood analyses using actin and-tubulin sequenc...

Sequencing fungal genomes has now become very common and the list of genomes in this manuscript reflects this. Particularly relevant is that the first announcement is a re-identification of Penicillium genomes available on NCBI. The fact that more than 100 of these genomes have been deposited without the correct species names speak volumes to the f...

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Australia, Aschersonia mackerrasiae on whitefly, Cladosporium corticola on bark of Melaleuca quinquenervia, Penicillium nudgee from soil under Melaleuca quinquenervia, Pseudocercospora blackwoodiae on leaf spot of Persoonia falcata, and Pseudocercospora...

Rootstock cuttings infected with latent Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTD's) pathogens are a major problem for nurseries. These fungal pathogens include several species of the genera Phaeoacremonium, Phaeomoniella, Cadophora, Dactylonectria, Ilyonectria, Diaporthe and the family Botryosphaeriaceae. Infected rootstock cuttings can cause losses of up to...

Xylem anatomy may change in response to environmental or biotic stresses. Vascular occlusion, an anatomical modification of mature xylem, contributes to plant resistance and susceptibility to different stresses. In woody organs, xylem occlusions have been examined as part of the senescence process, but their presence and function in leaves remain o...

Background Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are a complex group of diseases that lead to major economic losses in all wine‐producing countries. The investigation of biocontrol agents (BCAs) capable of forestalling or at least minimizing the development of GTDs has, recently, become a priority. Nursery experiments were set up to (i) assess the biocon...

Production from crops of pome, stone fruit, nut, berry fruit, citrus, grapevine, and olive is increasingly threatened by fungal trunk diseases (FTD). These diseases and the consequent production losses are major problems. Many fungi (including Botryosphaeriaceae, Calosphaeriaceae, Diaporthaceae, Diatrypaceae, Nectriaceae, Phaeomoniellaceae, Pleospo...

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most economically important perennial crops and is susceptible to a wide array of diseases caused by pathogenic oomycetes, fungi, bacteria, and viruses that are responsible for negative effects on plant growth, fruit production, and fruit quality. Downy mildew caused by Plasmopara viticola, powdery mildew...

Grapevine is regarded as a highly profitable culture, being well spread worldwide and mostly directed to the wine-producing industry. Practices to maintain the vineyard in healthy conditions are tenuous and are exacerbated due to abiotic and biotic stresses, where fungal grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) play a major role. The abolishment of chemical...

During a survey of endophytic fungi associated with ornamental plants in the Czech Republic, Paecilomyces-like strains were isolated from the root of Clematis. Analyses based on a combined internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), beta-tubulin (tub2) and calmodulin (CaM) sequence data matrix were applied to infer the phylogenetic position of these...

Phyllosticta ampelicida causes grapevine black rot, a potentially damaging disease for grape production. This paper reports the draft genome sequence of P. ampelicida PA1 Galicia CBS 148563, which is 30.55 Mb and encodes 10,691 predicted protein-coding genes. This is the first sequence genome assembly of P. ampelicida, and this information is a val...

Phyllosticta ampelicida causes grapevine black rot, a potentially damaging disease for grape production. This paper reports the draft genome sequence of P. ampelicida PA1 Galicia CBS 148563, which is 30.55 Mb and encodes 10,691 predicted protein-coding genes. This is the first sequence genome assembly of P. ampelicida, and this information is a val...

Seven Fusarium species complexes are treated, namely F. aywerte species complex (FASC) (two species), F. buharicum species complex (FBSC) (five species), F. burgessii species complex (FBURSC) (three species), F. camptoceras species complex (FCAMSC) (three species), F. chlamydosporum species complex (FCSC) (eight species), F. citricola species compl...

This paper is the fourth contribution in the Genera of Phytopathogenic Fungi (GOPHY) series. The series provides morphological descriptions and information about the pathology, distribution, hosts and disease symptoms, as well as DNA barcodes for the taxa covered. Moreover, 12 whole-genome sequences for the type or new species in the treated genera...

Gracias a la ciencia podemos identificar mejor las amenazas que po-nen en peligro nuestros cultivos, nuevas o ya existentes. En el caso de la vid, hace diez años se describió e identificó por primera vez el virus del Pinot gris (GPGV) como agente causal del Grapevine Leaf Mottling and Deformation (GLMD). Desde entonces, son muchas las regiones vití...

Rootstocks are the link between the soil and scion in grapevines, can provide tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses, and regulate yield and grape quality. The vascular system of grapevine rootstocks in nurseries is still an underexplored niche for research, despite its potential for hosting beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms. The purpose o...

La sostenibilidad ambiental de la producción vitícola es una exigencia del consumidor y la legislación cada vez restringe más el uso de fungicidas que se han utilizado tradicionalmente, lo que está aumentando el interés por otras estrategias para el control de enfermedades causadas por hongos en el cultivo de la vid, como es el control biológico.

Grapevines are challenged by a range of diseases and pests, causing economic losses and requiring often costly approaches to mitigate damage. Public interest in reducing the use of chemicals is a related challenge, along with climate change. Yet, the Vitis gene pool provides vast resources for the development of genetic resistance in rootstock and...

Black-foot is a fungal disease that affects young vines and planting material in the countries where grapevines are cultivated. During the 2018 grape-growing season, symptoms of reduced vigor, short internodes, leaf chlorosis, root rot and necrosis in the base of plants were observed in vines between 2 to 10 years old from 400 ha of vineyards of Me...

Actualmente la obligación de cumplir con la directiva 128/2009/EC, relativa al uso sostenible de fitosanitarios, unida a una mayor preocupación de la sociedad por la salud y el medioambiente, implica que el control químico ya no puede ser en muchos casos la principal herramienta para proteger los cultivos, lo que hace imprescindible un mayor conoci...

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antartica, Cladosporium austrolitorale from coastal sea sand. Australia, Austroboletus yourkae on soil, Crepidotus innuopurpureus on dead wood, Curvularia stenotaphri from roots and leaves of Stenotaphrum secundatum and Thecaphora stajsicii from capsules...

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are a big threat for global viticulture. Without effective chemicals, biocontrol strategies are developed as alternatives to better cope with environmental concerns. A combination of biological control agents (BCAs) could even improve sustainable disease management through complementary ways of protection. In this st...

Fungal grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are some of the most pressing threats to grape production worldwide. While these diseases are associated with several fungal pathogens, Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and Phaeoacremonium minimum are important contributors to esca and Petri diseases. Recent research has linked grapevine xylem diameter with toleran...

Plant roots support complex microbial communities that can influence nutrition, plant growth, and health. In grapevine, little is known about the impact of abiotic stresses on the belowground microbiome. In this study, we examined the drought-induced shifts in fungal composition in the root endosphere, the rhizosphere and bulk soil by internal tran...

Recent publications have argued that there are potentially serious consequences for researchers in recognising distinct genera in the terminal fusarioid clade of the family Nectriaceae. Thus, an alternate hypothesis, namely a very broad concept of the genus Fusarium was proposed. In doing so, however, a significant body of data that supports distin...

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Algeria, Phaeoacremonium adelophialidum from Vitis vinifera. Antarctica, Comoclathris antarctica from soil. Australia, Coniochaeta salicifolia as endophyte from healthy leaves of Geijera salicifolia, Eremothecium peggii in fruit of Citrus australis, Micr...

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Algeria , Phaeoacremonium adelophialidum from Vitis vinifera . Antarctica , Comoclathris antarctica from soil. Australia , Coniochaeta salicifolia as endophyte from healthy leaves of Geijera salicifolia , Eremothecium peggii in fruit of Citrus australis...

Among the agricultural practices promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy to increase soil functions, the use of cover crops is a recommended tool to improve the sustainability of Mediterranean woody crops such as olive orchards. However, there is a broad range of cover crop typologies in relation to its implementation, control and species compos...

Among the agricultural practices promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy to increase soil functions, the use of cover crops is a recommended tool to improve the sustainability of Mediter-ranean woody crops such as olive orchards. However, there is a broad range of cover crop ty-pologies in relation to its implementation, control and species comp...

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are one of the main biotic stress factors affecting this crop. The use of tolerant grapevine cultivars would be an interesting and sustainable alternative strategy to control GTDs. To date, most studies about cultivar susceptibility have been conducted under controlled conditions, and little information is available...

A field survey conducted on asymptomatic grapevine propagation material from nurseries and symptomatic young grapevines throughout different regions of Algeria yielded a collection of 70 Phaeoacremonium-like isolates and three Cadophora-like isolates. Based on morphology and DNA sequence data of β-tubulin (tub2) and actin (act), five Phaeoacremoniu...

A field survey conducted on asymptomatic grapevine propagation material from nurseries and symptomatic young grapevines throughout different regions of Algeria yielded a collection of 70 Phaeoacremonium-like isolates and three Cadophora-like isolates. Based on morphology and DNA sequence data of β-tubulin (tub2) and actin (act), five Phaeoacremoniu...

The grapevine trunk diseases (GTD) Botryosphaeria dieback and esca threaten the sustainability of the grapevine industry worldwide. This study aimed to evaluate and compare the efficacy of various liquid (pyraclostrobin + boscalid and thiophanate methyl) and paste (paste + tebuconazole) formulation fungicide treatments as well as biological control...

La poda es una práctica cultural que permite la regulación del equilibrio vegetativo–productivo de las cepas, pero que conlleva la realización reiterada de heridas que pueden disminuir su longevidad debido a la infección por hongos asociados a las enfermedades de la madera. Las buenas prácticas de poda abarcan conceptos como la ejecución de los cor...

Viticulture is facing emerging challenges not only because of the effect of climate change on yield and composition of grapes, but also of a social demand for environmental‐friendly agricultural management. Adaptation to these challenges is essential to guarantee the sustainability of viticulture. The aim of this review is to present adaptation pos...

The soil-borne fungus Dactylonectria torresensis is the most common causal agent of black-foot disease in Europe. However, there is a lack of understanding on how this fungus can provoke plant symptoms. In this study, we sequenced, annotated and analyzed the genomes of three isolates of D. torresensis collected from asymptomatic vine, weed and soil...

Timing of pruning may affect wound susceptibility to wood-invading fungi, such as those associated with grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs). This study aimed to determine the effect of pruning time on natural fungal infection in six vineyards in Galicia, Spain, during two periods of three months each, from November to February and from February to May...

BACKGROUND Black‐foot and Petri diseases are the main fungal diseases associated with young grapevine decline. Two field experiments were established to evaluate the preventive effect of two potential biocontrol agents (BCAs), that is Streptomyces sp. E1 + R4 and Pythium oligandrum Po37, and three BCA‐commercial products containing Trichoderma atro...

Botryosphaeria dieback (BD) is a serious grapevine trunk disease (GTD) that causes large losses in yield and shortens the productive life of vineyards. Neofusicoccum parvum is one of the main causal agents of BD. Currently there are no curative fungicides to eradicate this disease; therefore, the use of tolerant cultivars to BD could be considered...

Cadophora luteo-olivacea is the most prevalent Cadophora species associated with Petri disease and esca of grapevine. Accurate, early and specific detection and quantification of C. luteo-olivacea are essential to alert growers and nurseries to the presence of the pathogens in soil, and to prevent the spread of this pathogen through grapevines plan...

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most economically important cultivated perennial plants worldwide and is susceptible to an array of diseases caused by pathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses, and oomycetes. In recent decades, extensive efforts have been made to reduce the use of chemical pesticides in viticulture by developing and deploying...

Two hundred and twenty-five Diaporthe isolates were collected from 2005 to 2019 in almond orchards showing twig cankers and shoot blight symptoms in five different regions across Spain. Multilocus DNA sequence analysis with five loci (ITS, tub, tef-1α, cal and his), allowed the identification of four known Diaporthe species, namely: D. amygdali, D....

Citrus trees with cankers and dieback symptoms were observed in Bushehr (Bushehr province, Iran). Isolations were made from diseased cankers and branches. Recovered fungal isolates were identified using cultural and morphological characteristics, as well as comparisons of DNA sequence data of the nuclear ribosomal DNA-internal transcribed spacer re...

Los cortes de poda constituyen la vía principal de entrada de los hongos causantes de las enfermedades de la madera de la vid (EMV). En el presente trabajo se evaluó, en dos campañas vitícolas, la eficacia de varios productos biológicos, químicos o combinación de materias activas fungicidas con una barrera física para la protección de heridas de po...

Although the fungus Phaeomoniella chlamydospora is the most commonly detected causal agent of Petri disease and esca, two important fungal grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs), little is known about the dispersal patterns of P. chlamydospora inoculum. In this work, we studied the dispersal of P. chlamydospora airborne inoculum from 2016 to 2018 in two v...

Black-foot disease is one of the most important soilborne diseases affecting planting material in grapevine nurseries and young vineyards. Accurate, early and specific detection and quantification of black-foot disease causing fungi are essential to alert growers and nurseries to the presence of the pathogens in soil, and to prevent the spread of t...

Juglans regia L. (English walnut) trees with cankers and dieback symptoms were observed in two regions in the Czech Republic. Isolations were made from diseased branches. In total, 138 fungal isolates representing ten fungal species were obtained from wood samples and identified based on morphological characteristics and molecular methods: Cadophor...

Las enfermedades de la madera de la vid son una de las principales causas de su muerte temprana. La falta de medidas curativas hace que su manejo sea muy difícil y requiera de una estrategia de manejo integrado combinando tratamientos físicos, químicos, biológicos y prácticas culturales tanto en plantas de vivero como en viñedos recién establecidos...

In this study, 3,426 grafted grapevines ready to be planted from 15 grapevine nursery fields in Northern Spain were inspected from 2016 to 2018 for black-foot causing pathogens. In all, 1,427 isolates of black-foot pathogens were collected from the asymptomatic inner tissues of surface sterilized secondary roots and characterized based on morpholog...

Diaporthe species are important pathogens, saprobes, and endophytes on grapevines. Several species are known, either as agents of pre-or post-harvest infections, as causal agents of many relevant diseases, including swelling arm, trunk cankers, leaf spots, root and fruit rots, wilts, and cane bleaching. A growing body of evidence exists that a clas...

The diversity of Phytophthora species in declining Fagaceae forests in Europe is increasing in the last years. The genus Quercus is one of the most extended Fagaceae genera in Europe, and Q. ilex is the dominant tree in Spain. The introduction of soil-borne pathogens, such as Phytophthora in Fagaceae forests modifies the microbial community present...

El pie negro es una de las principales enfermedades causadas por hongos del suelo que afectan a material de propagación en vivero y a vid joven en todo el mundo. El control del pie negro es complicado ya que los hongos asociados a esta enfermedad producen estructuras de resistencia que les permiten sobrevivir un largo periodo de tiempo en ausencia...

La principal vía de infección del hongo Phaeomoniella chlamydospora en plantaciones establecidas es a través de heridas de poda. Una vez coloniza la madera, no existen medidas de control efectivas. La estrategia más adecuada es la prevención de infecciones en campo y la eficacia de cualquier actuación en este sentido dependerá de la elección del mo...

Las enfermedades fúngicas de la madera de la vid (EMV) son actualmente una de las patologías más dañinas que afectan a este cultivo a nivel mundial. La utilización de portainjertos, cultivares y clones tolerantes a estas patologías se postula como un elemento clave para la gestión integrada de las EMV. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la sus...

El conocimiento de las interacciones que se producen entre el microbioma presente en el suelo, en la rizosfera y la colonización de las raíces de las vides puede resultar clave para determinar los procesos de infección por hongos asociados a las enfermedades de la madera de la vid (EMV), principalmente la enfermedad del pie negro. Por ello, en este...

Plant compartments provide unique niches that lead to specific microbial associations. The microbiota colonizing the endophytic compartment (endorhizosphere) and the rhizosphere contribute to productivity , plant growth, phytoremediation and carbon sequestration. The main objective of this study was to investigate how fungal communities are enriche...

Description of a novel Cadophora species collected from Helianthus annus in Ukraine

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Australia, Chaetomella pseudocircinoseta and Coniella pseudodiospyri on Eucalyptus microcorys leaves, Cladophialophora eucalypti, Teratosphaeria dunnii and Vermiculariopsiella dunnii on Eucalyptus dunnii leaves, Cylindrium grande and Hypsotheca eucalypto...

Invited talk at the 11th International Workshop on Grapevine Trunk Diseases which was held in Penticton (Canada) in July 2019.

Grapevine trunk disease (GTD) fungi are highly diverse and species recognition is largely dependent on multi-locus DNA phylogenetic analyses. The DNA sequences frequently used for this multi-locus approach, include the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA and fragments of the translation elongation factor 1-α (TE...

The microbiota colonizing the rhizosphere and the endorhizosphere contribute to plant growth, productivity, carbon sequestration, and phytoremediation. Several studies suggested that different plants types and even genotypes of the same plant species harbor partially different microbiomes. Here, we characterize the rhizosphere bacterial and fungal...

Esca and leaf stripe diseases are two of the most destructive grapevine trunk diseases which are caused by a complex of fungal species, being the Ascomycete Phaeomoniella chlamydospora the most frequently isolated species from affected vines. To date, no curative measures are known for control these diseases; therefore, planting disease-resistant c...

Syzygium cumini trees with dieback symptoms and cankers were observed in two provinces in Iran. Isolations were made from diseased branches and cankers and from asymptomatic S. cumini wood samples. Several trunk disease pathogens were identified based on morphological characteristics and by molecular methods, including Cadophora luteo-olivacea, Dip...

A protocol is offered as a guideline for managers of rootstock mother grapevines, and as a potential research framework for to reduce infections by Grapevine Trunk Disease (GTD) pathogens in rootstock mother vines and cuttings. Latent infections by GTD pathogens in rootstock cuttings are a major source of the pathogens in grafted nursery vines and...

Resumen/Abstract Las enfermedades fúngicas de la madera de la vid (EFMV) representan una de las principales amenazas para la sostenibilidad de este cultivo, causan-do importantes pérdidas económicas en todo el mundo debido a la reducción de los rendimientos que provocan, al incremento en los costes de manejo por la necesaria introducción de diferen...

Award of the best scientific panel at the Spanish Society of Plant Pathology Congress which was held in Toledo (Spain) in October 2018

The ecology of total fungal communities in grapevine is so far largely derived from studies on culture-dependent methods or cultivation-independent rDNA approaches. Sequencing the ribosomal RNA transcripts (rRNA) would rather reveal the functionally and metabolically active important taxa of the fungal community and provide insights into its activi...

BACKGROUND Control of Botrytis bunch rot (BBR) is currently based on the application of fungicides at four timings corresponding to specific growth stages of vines: end of flowering (A), pre‐bunch closure (B), veraison (C) and before harvest (D). The current research provides a network meta‐analysis of 116 studies conducted between 1963 and 2016 in...

En la actualidad, son numerosos los grupos de investigación que trabajan en diferentes aspectos del patosistema enfermedades fúngicas de la madera de la vid (EMV) y, entre ellos, en el desarrollo de estrategias para su control. Por citar un ejemplo, el pasado Congreso Internacional sobre las EMV que se celebró en julio de 2017 en Reims (Francia) re...

In June 2017, symptoms of black foot disease were observed on 2-year-old grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Malvasía grafted on 110 Richter rootstock and on 2-year-old grapevines cv. Garnacha Tintorera grafted on 110 Richter rootstock in Mendavia (Navarra Province, northern Spain) and Requena (Valencia Province, eastern Spain), respectively. Affect...

En este estudio se comparó la eficacia de tres medios de cultivo para estimar la población de hongos asociados al pie negro en suelos y analizar el modo en que su distribución y abundancia varía en relación a determina-dos cambios en las propiedades del suelo. El medio Agar Rosa de Bengala con Glucosa e infusión de Haba (GFBRBA) fue el más eficaz....

Responder a la pregunta de si los hongos de la madera han estado siempre ahí no resulta sencillo. Para poder hacerlo, es necesario conocer mejor las enfermedades y sus síntomas. En este trabajo se describen en detalle las enfermedades de madera típicamente observadas tanto en plantas jóvenes como en adultas, y se indica cómo el desarrollo de técnic...