Charlie Shackleton

Rhodes University | RU · Department of Environmental Science

Urban foraging for wild plant and animal products is increasingly recognised for its multiple benefits for people and nature stewardship. Planning for foraging in urban greenspace is one way that foraging can be made more accessible, beneficial, and equitable. Here, we explore how foraging could be recognised and provided for in urban municipalitie...

The provision and management of urban green infrastructure (UGI) provides multiple benefits to the wellbeing of urban residents. A crucial, yet underexplored benefit, is the role that UGI can play in poverty alleviation. Acknowledging this role raises questions as to how UGI design and management can better provide opportunities for poverty allevia...

Foraging for wild resources links urban citizens to nature and biodiversity while providing resources important for local livelihoods and culture. However, the abundance and distributional (in)equity of forageable urban tree resources have rarely been examined. Consequently, this study assessed the abundance of forageable street trees and their dis...

Invasive alien species are considered a major contributor to biodiversity loss. Yet, many are favoured for particular ecosystem services that they provide. This is often so in urban environments experiencing rapid environmental and social change and land transformation. Public support is viewed as critical for invasive alien species prevention and...

During the past decades, a growing body of literature has recognized the benefits (including ecological, social, economic, cultural, and psychological benefits) of foraging in urban and peri-urban environments. Particularly in the cities of sub-Saharan Africa, the collection and use of raw biological resources play an important role in people’s liv...

Invasive alien plants (IAPs) are rapidly increasing around the world, mainly due to land transformation, climate change, and urbanisation. Whilst urban areas are highly susceptible to invasion by IAPs, crucial information on the distribution and abundance of woody invaders in small towns is limited. Here, we determined the distribution and abundanc...

To conserve and use forests sustainably, it is helpful to have accurate and regular assessments of their health and status. A key tool in this regard is the regular global overview provided by the Food and Agriculture Programme (FAO) in their Global Forest Resources Assessments (GFRA), now issued every five years. As of 2000, the GFRA required memb...

Public-sector urban planners are essential role-players in the development of sustainable cities. However, there is relatively little understanding of their perceptions of sustainability generally and how or where they obtain information and knowledge around urban sustainability, especially in the Global South. This study, therefore, adopted a mixe...

Neighbourhood greenness is one of the indicators for residential satisfaction in urban areas. However, residents in low-income urban communities often express dissatisfaction with their neighbourhoods because of limited urban green infrastructure (UGI) and trees in comparison to relatively affluent neighbourhoods. Low-income neighbourhoods in South...

Most countries have declared one or more animal or plant species to be among their national symbols, termed here national biodiversity symbols. National biodiversity symbols are the species formally or informally recognised by societies and countries as having meaning to one or more of national identity, values and unity. It has been proposed previ...

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are used by billions of rural and urban people globally. Income shares from NTFPs are generally highest among poor communities and households, and consequently, their use has at times been described as a poverty trap. However, there are only a handful of works that have directly examined the existence of poverty t...

Deagrarianisation amongst smallholder farmers is a growing phenomenon globally, driven by a complex array of context-specific and higher-scale factors. Most research has focused on declines in arable cropping, with relatively little regard to the deagrarianisation dynamics associated with livestock ownership, yet the two are often linked through th...

Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) frequently offer both ecosystem services and disservices to rural communities with high livelihood dependency on local landscapes. However, biocultural relationships with IAPS may go deeper than just provisioning uses, as they may be assimilated into local belief systems manifest in them becoming embedded in cult...

Investigating the concurrent impacts with harvesting on wild vegetables can guide their sustainable management while contributing to the understanding of such impacts on NTFP species. This study investigated leaf production, morphological and growth responses to the concurrent impacts of drought and leaf harvesting between two wild vegetables. A ra...

This chapter provides an overview of the empirical evidence regarding the association between green space in general, and forests and trees in particular, and health outcomes. The evidence is organised by life stage, and within the three life stages – early life (Section 3.2.), adulthood (Section 3.3.) and the elderly (Section 3.4.) – by type of he...

Many alien tree species were introduced into grassland ecosystems in South Africa by the commercial forestry industry for paper and timber for furniture. Over decades some of these introduced species escaped into neighbouring farms and community land. Adult trees from these alien species now provide other ecosystem services, notably fuelwood. Depen...

Sustainability-focused research networks and communities of practice have emerged as a key response and strategy to build capacity and knowledge to support transformation towards more sustainable, just and equitable futures. This paper synthesises insights from the development of a community of practice on social-ecological systems (SES) research i...

Urban foraging is a global informal phenomenon which has been investigated in the Global North more than other parts of the world. Characterising the nature of urban foraging in the Global South is imperative given the rapid urbanisation and sustainable development priorities in the region. In this study, we interviewed 80 urban foragers in four ci...

Provisioning ecosystem services (PES) are typically crucial to rural livelihoods, especially in developing countries. However, the links between PES and local biodiversity or landscape heterogeneity are poorly explored. Here, we examined the extent of use and value of locally harvested wild, terrestrial and marine PES (such as wild foods, tradition...

Enhancing knowledge of urban foraging across different urban landscapes is an urgent matter given that about two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to live in urban areas by 2050, whilst 50% of Africa’s population is expected to live in cities by 2030. This study was conducted in Lagos metropolis which is the economic hub of Africa’s mos...

South Africa has experienced massive urbanisation and socioeconomic development over the past two decades. Concomitantly, the national energy policy focuses on the provision of modern fuels, notably electricity, for domestic use. Given this policy environment and socioeconomic development, we examine pertinent literature and policies from South Afr...

Social-ecological systems (SES) research has emerged as an important area of sustainability science, informing and supporting pressing issues of transformation towards more sustainable, just and equitable futures. To date, much SES research has been done in or from the Global North, where the challenges and contexts for supporting sustainability tr...

Much previous research has problematized the use of a binary urban–rural distinction to describe human settlement patterns in and around cities. Peri-urban zones, on the edge of urban settlements, are important both in the sheer magnitude of human population and in terms of being home to vulnerable populations with high rates of poverty. This Persp...

In most low-income countries, rural households combine a range of economic activities to generate income, achieve food and nutritional security and fulfill other livelihood objectives, including: small-scale farming, fishing, hunting, livestock and timber production, and non-timber forest products gathering, as well as off-farm activities such as w...

Trees in public urban green spaces provide a variety of ecosystem goods and services that are greatly appreciated by urban residents. A commonly used good, especially in Global South regions, is that of fuelwood for household energy needs. Yet the production potential of fuelwood from public urban green spaces has rarely been examined. This study q...

Assumptions about the link between green space and crime mitigation are informed by literature that overwhelmingly originates in the Global North. Little is known about the association between green spaces and crime in the Global South. We utilized 10 years of precinct-level crime statistics (n = 1152) over South Africa, a global crime hotspot, to...

Production of livestock in urban spaces is a common phenomenon globally, particularly in the Global South. Livestock provides multiple benefits to society yet its production in urban spaces can result in adverse impacts to residents that can trigger conflicts. Understanding of the ecosystem services and disservices of livestock from the perspective...

Increasing human populations and rapid urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa have prompted the development and maintenance of urban green infrastructure, including urban trees for sustainability, human wellbeing, liveability and climate resilience. However, there are still insufficient amounts and large inequities in the distribution of trees between...

The management of urban forests is a key element of resilience planning in cities across the globe. Urban forests provide ecosystem services as well as other nature based solutions to 4.2 billion people living in cities. However, to continue to do so effectively, urban forests need to be able to thrive in an increasingly changing climate. Trees in...

Globally, the importance of urban vegetation in the quality and maintenance of life in urban areas is increasingly recognized. As the basis of urban green infrastructure, urban vegetation provides a diversity of ecosystem services, including provisioning services. However, there is limited understanding of the potential of urban vegetation as a sup...

Informal foraging for food and other natural materials in urban greenspaces is an activity undertaken by many across the world. For some, foraging is a necessary means of survival and livelihood, while for others, it provides cultural and recreational opportunities. In the socioeconomic crises induced by Covid-19, foraging can help communities, esp...

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are widely used wild, biological products harvested from rural and urban landscapes for household subsistence, income and culture, thereby contributing to human wellbeing. Estimates of the numbers of people making use of, or being dependent on, NTFPs vary widely, and global estimates to date have excluded urban po...

Understanding tree species autecology and population structure supports effective conservation actions. Of particular importance are multipurpose trees that provide non-timber forest products (NTFPs). We assessed the population structures and morphologies of two species of NTFP trees in the genus Mimusops across bioclimatic zones in Benin by sampli...

Traditional handicrafts made from various plant materials are produced by most cultures around the world. Many originated through symbolic and utilitarian needs that became ritualized through time, thereby gradually attaining greater value as cultural items or symbols rather than solely functional ones. Here we report on a survey of 343 crafters ac...

Different types of public urban green spaces (PUGS) contain various natural (such as trees, pools, flowerbeds) and artificial elements (such as benches, play equipment, fountains) which contribute to the enjoyment and experience of users. However, which elements users most require, appreciate or notice has rarely been examined as the basis of their...

Although foraging wild plants is commonly perceived to be synonymous with rural areas, it is now increasingly recognized in urban areas. Notwithstanding, the regulations conditioning access to and rights to foraging in urban green spaces have seldom been examined. This study explored the formal and informal regulations governing access to and defin...

The potential and real negative and positive effects of invasive alien species (IAS) are increasingly recognised by researchers, land managers and decision-makers. However, most of the research and knowledge stems from understandings developed from rural and natural landscapes, with relatively little derived from studies in urban settings. Small to...

The multiple benefits of urban green infrastructure (UGI) that support sustainable cities are increasingly acknowledged, and yet the bulk of research over the past decade or so has focused on only a small subset of the numerous benefits, notably recreation, physical and mental health, and regulating services. In contrast, there is very little infor...

A substantial portion of urban green infrastructure is under private tenure in residents’ and business/corporate gardens. Therefore, the ways that urban residents manage their gardens can influence the type, quantity and quality of ecosystem services and disservices in urban areas. Plant nurseries are a major source of trees for urban residents, an...

In South Africa there has been relatively little consideration of the informal employment offered to domestic household workers and gardeners. Here we report on the number and profile of gardeners employed by private households and the wage and satisfaction rates in 12 towns of the Eastern Cape. Over 98% of the informal gardeners were male, middle-...

The rapid growth in urban ecological research and application has been led by countries of the Global North, particularly Europe and the USA, albeit not restricted to them. However, this belies that most urban growth is currently in the Global South, with the differential set to increase in the future. Thus, there is an imbalance between where the...

All of humankind, urban and rural, rich and poor and whether living in the Global South or the Global North rely to some degree on provisioning ecosystem services such as food, water, timber, fibre and medicinal products. However, in contrast to the Global North the contextual forces shaping many urban livelihoods in the Global South necessitate th...

Urban ecology is a key discipline in guiding urban development, sustainability and consequently human wellbeing. However, most urban ecological research has, and continues to be, undertaken in the Global North, and thus urban ecological methods, principles and frameworks are dominated by contributions and understandings from the Global North. Howev...

As much as people benefit from the ecosystem services provided by nature, ecosystem disservices also impact daily lives. This is especially true for many urban communities in the Global South due to (1) the often greater diversity of ecosystem disservices and (2) higher vulnerabilities, which together can lead to greater impacts of ecosystem disser...

Public urban green spaces are essential for urban sustainability and the physical and mental wellbeing of urban residents. Yet in some settings they may face a number of threats, ranging from land transformation and development, through to poor maintenance and vandalism. It has been posited that community engagement is a crucial strategy in address...

Understanding the niche and habitat requirements of useful and threatened species, their shifts under climate change and how well protected areas (PAs) preserve these habitats is relevant for guiding sustainable management actions. Here we assessed the ecological factors underlying the distribution of two multipurpose and threatened species, Mimuso...

Colonialism is a significant legacy across most aspects of urban form, the nature and distribution of public green spaces, and tree species composition in many cities of the Global South. However, the legacy effects of colonialism on urban green infrastructure and the uses thereof have only recently come under scrutiny. Here we collate information...

Against the background of unprecedented rates of urbanisation in the Global South, leading to massive social, economic and environmental transformations, this book engages with the dire need to understand the ecology of such settings as the foundation for fostering sustainable and resilient human settlements in contexts that are very different to t...

Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata are two abundant palm species in the Maputaland coastal plains of southern Mozambique. They provide an array of subsistence and commercial non-timber forest products. This research characterizes the ethnobotanical knowledge and uses of these species. Using structured interviews we assessed the knowledge, past...

Wild edible fruits (WEFs) are important non-timber forest products (NTFP) that are commonly grouped with other wild foods or NTFPs in general. We hypothesize that WEFs, other wild foods, and non-food NTFPs contribute in different ways to household economies. Using data collected through a survey of 503 households in South Africa, we describe patter...

A Correction to this paper has been published: 10.1007/s10745-020-00196-8

The pepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris) is one of the most highly valued medicinal plant species worldwide. Native to southern Africa, this species has been extensively harvested for the bark, which is widely used in traditional health practices. Illegal harvesting coupled with habitat degradation has contributed to fragmentation of populations...

The contribution of ecosystem services to smallholder agriculture is widely recognised. However, they are seldom analysed in tandem with the ecosystem disservices, such as crop weeds and pests, which the same systems produce. We do so by quantifying the provisioning ecosystem services and disservices in smallholder arable agricultural systems in th...

Urbanisation is a global multidimensional process that is intricately interlinked with ideological processes of modernisation, industrialisation and rationalisation. Cities have become viewed as agents of development and change, promoting capitalistic ideals of forward thinking and innovation. The Global North and Western ideals are deemed the fron...

This study presents an integrated examination of both the ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem disservices (EDS) associated with smallholder animal husbandry in rural livelihoods in three villages in southeast South Africa. It recognises the contribution of ES supporting and resulting from smallholder livestock and poultry production, but also det...

The production of plant fibre products is considered a promising pathway for contributing to people’s livelihoods particularly in developing countries, where economic options might be limited. However, there are limited comparative studies across countries on plant fibre products, making it difficult to examine how local and broader biophysical, so...

Urban green infrastructure provides ecosystem services that are essential to human wellbeing. A dearth of national-scale assessments in the Global South has precluded the ability to explore how political regimes, such as the forced racial segregation in South Africa during and after Apartheid, have influenced the extent of and access to green infra...

Most sub-Saharan African countries are experiencing accelerating rates of urban migration, which bring with it many opportunities and challenges for migrating households, urban planners, governments and local and national economies. At the household level urbanisation may drive changes in the allocation of household labour and consequently social a...

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) provides numerous environmental, social and economic benefits through direct and indirect use of ecosystem services. The maintenance of UGI also provides work opportunities for skilled and unskilled workers in the public and private sectors, so-called green collar jobs. However, the extent and benefit of such employ...

Gathering of uncultivated food from green spaces, also known as foraging, is observed in urban areas across the world, but the literature focuses predominantly on the global north. Our study examines the existing urban land management structure and its approach to urban foraging in the eastern coastal region of South Africa. Through interviews with...

This chapter examines current knowledge relating to the human and social dimensions of biological invasions in South Africa. We do so by advancing 12 propositions and examining the evidence for or against each using South African literature. The propositions cover four broad issues: how people cause invasions; how they conceptualise them; effects o...

Urban ecosystems provide goods and services critical to livelihood sustenance, environmental protection and sustainability. However, the potential role of some urban ecosystem services such as the provisioning services, to promote liveable cities and livelihood resilience is seldom considered. This study reports on the prevalence and pattern of wil...

Provisioning ecosystem services of the Likangala River Catchment in southern Malawi are important for livelihoods of those living there. Remote sensing, participatory mapping and focus group discussions were used to explore the spatio-temporal changes and trade-offs in land-cover change from 1984 to 2013, and how that affects provisioning ecosystem...

Globally, approximately one billion people benefit from contributions of wild foods to their food security and dietary diversity. Wild foods are known to be important in rural communities in terms of food and micronutrient provision, diversifying diets, reducing vulnerability to non-communicable diseases and overall health. However, the potential c...

Large swathes of arable fields have been abandoned in many areas of the world over the last few decades driven by a multitude of local and broader-scale factors. Many former fields experience a change in vegetation composition and structure post-abandonment, typically through a process of plant succession. The changes in species and abundance mean...

South Africa has potential to export honey products through promoting beekeeping as an income generating opportunity amongst rural communities. Formalised beekeeping may also reduce wild fires initiated by hunters of wild bee hives. This study examined the contribution of the African Honey Bee (AHB) initiative to rural livelihoods and the incidence...

Faced with environmental degradation, governments worldwide are developing policies to safeguard ecosystem services (ES). Many ES models exist to support these policies, but they are generally poorly validated, especially at large scales, which undermines their credibility. To address this gap, we describe a study of multiple models of five ES, whi...

The importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to rural livelihoods is widely acknowledged globally, as is the income generated from casual or fulltime trade on village and urban markets. However, there is less understanding of how the condition or status of the neighboring landscapes influence the use of and trade in NTFPs. Here we report on...

A well-nourished and healthy population is a central tenet of sustainable development. In South Africa, cultural beliefs and food taboos followed by some pregnant women influence their food consumption, which impacts the health of mothers and children during pregnancy and immediately afterwards. We documented food taboos and beliefs amongst pregnan...

Understanding of urban residents’ preferences and dislikes for tree species and attributes is necessary to provide them with the species they most favour. Yet there is relatively little understanding of local species preferences, the reasons underlying them and how they vary with context and scale. We interviewed 1100 urban residents in eleven town...

Urban greenery provide a variety of goods and services to city dwellers. A core one is amelioration of the urban heat island effect. However, the many estimates from temperate regions cannot be extrapolated to the tropics, where more empirical studies are required to guide urban planning and optimization of green infrastructure design and distribut...