Carl J. Payton

Manchester Metropolitan University | MMU · Department of Exercise and Sport Science

In response to calls for examples from sports settings that highlight successful collaborations between skill acquisition specialists and coaches, this study evaluated the effectiveness of a skill acquisition coach education intervention. After an analysis of practice by a skill acquisition specialist, which provided context to impact learning desi...

Purpose: The impact of physical impairment on Froude efficiency and intra-cyclic velocity fluctuation in Para swimmers is not well documented. Identification of differences in these variables between disabled and non-disabled swimmers could help develop a more objective system for assigning Para swimmers to classes for competition. This study quan...

Purpose Investigate the impact of 12-weeks’ moderate-intensity resistance training on psychological parameters in ambulatory adults with Facioscapulohumeral, Becker, and Limb–girdle muscular dystrophy. Methods Seventeen adults with Facioscapulohumeral (n = 6), Limb–girdle (n = 6; types 2A, 2B, 2L, and 2I), or Becker (n = 5) muscular dystrophy took...

This study described the kinematic variables of disabled swimmers’ performance and correlated them with their functional classification. Twenty-one impaired swimmers (S5–S10) performed 50-m maximum front-crawl swimming while being recorded by four underwater cameras. Swimming velocity, stroke rate, stroke length, intracycle velocity variation, stro...

The inherent hydrodynamic resistance force, or passive drag, of a swimmer directly influences how they move through the water. For swimmers with physical impairments the strength of association between passive drag and swimming performance is unknown. Knowledge on this factor could improve the World Para Swimming classification process. This study...

This study set out to gain insight into the practices adopted by elite level Paralympic swimming coaches and to shed light on the knowledge and rationale underpinning their approaches. Coaching sessions were delivered by nine senior coaches from the British Para swimming (BPS) World Class Programme. A coaching session was observed from each coach a...

The current protocol for classifying Para swimmers with hypertonia, ataxia and athetosis involves a physical assessment where the individual’s ability to coordinate their limbs is scored by subjective clinical judgment. The lack of objective measurement renders the current test unsuitable for evidence-based classification. This study evaluated a re...

The impacts of potentially treatable psychological parameters on quality of life are relatively unreported in adults with Facioscapulohumeral, Becker and Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. The purpose of this study was to compare quality of life, psychological parameters, and physical function between adults with muscular dystrophy and controls, and t...

This study is the first to provide information on the age‐related trajectories of performance in Para swimmers with physical, vision and intellectual impairment. Race times from long‐course swim meets between 2009 and 2019 were obtained for Para swimmers with an eligible impairment. A subset of 10661 times from 411 Para swimmers were included in li...

Markerless motion capture would permit the study of human biomechanics in environments where marker-based systems are impractical, e.g. outdoors or underwater. The visual hull tool may enable such data to be recorded, but it requires the accurate detection of the silhouette of the object in multiple camera views. This paper reviews the top-performi...

Back ground Achondroplasia is characterised by a shorter appendicular limb to torso ratio, compared to age matched individuals of average stature (controls). Despite the well documented shorter leg length of individuals with compared to controls, there are few complete descriptions of gait kinematics reported for the population. Aim The aim of thi...

Although swimming is recognized as a symmetrical sport, equivalence between each body side cannot be insured. Swimmers with physical and motor impairment may present asymmetries that are even more pronounced. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the symmetry of temporal coordination in the front crawl stroke phases and their dimensi...

Swimmers with limb deficiency are a core population within Para Swimming, accordingly this study examined the contribution of limb segments to race performance in these swimmers. Data were obtained for 174 male Para swimmers with limb deficiency. Ensemble partial least squares regression showed accurate predictions when using relative limb segment...

The assessment of swimming propulsion should be a cornerstone of Paralympic swimming classification. However, current methods do not objectively account for this component. Purpose: To evaluate the swimming propulsion of swimmers with and without physical impairment using a 30-second maximal fully tethered freestyle swim test. Methods: Tethered...

Introduction: Paralympic classification should provide athletes with an equitable starting point for competition by minimising the impact their impairment has on the outcome of the event. As swimming is an event conducted in water, the ability to overcome drag (active and passive) is an important performance determinant. It is plausible that the a...

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine changes in swimming parameters, stroke coordination, and symmetry after repeated high-intensity swimming efforts in swimmers of different performance levels and para-swimmers. Method: Forty swimmers (20 able-bodied, allocated to higher and lower performance groups—G1 and G2, respectively—and 20 impair...

We present a novel silhouette extraction algorithm designed for the binary segmentation of swimmers underwater. The intended use of this algorithm is within a 2D-to-3D pipeline for the markerless motion capture of swimmers, a task which has not been achieved satisfactorily, partly due to the absence of silhouette extraction methods that work well o...

Background: The inclusion of resistance training in the treatment and management of muscular dystrophy has previously been discouraged, based on mainly anecdotal evidence. There remains a lack of experimental investigation into resistance training in individuals with muscular dystrophy. The aim of the current study was therefore, to determine the e...

Introduction This study evaluated three-dimensional kinematic parameters of the front crawl stroke in physically impaired swimmers across a range of functional classification levels. Facts and Results Eight highly-trained competitive swimmers (5 male and 3 female) from IPC classes S5 to S9 performed 50 m maximal front crawl trials while being vide...

Achondroplasia is a condition characterized by a genetic mutation affecting long bone endplate development. Current data suggests that the bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD) of achondroplasic populations are below age matched individuals of average stature (controls). Due to the disproportionate limb-to-torso length compared...

Participant values of scanned lean mass and bone mineral content (kg) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of scanned lean mass (kg) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of scanned area (cm2) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of bone mineral content (kg) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of scanned fat (kg) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of fat (%) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of bone mineral content (g·cm-2) for each segment. (PDF)

Participant values of total mass (kg) for each segment. (PDF)

Objectives The International Paralympic Committee has mandated that International Sport Federations develop sport-specific classification systems that are evidence-based. This study examined the predictive and convergent validity of instrumented tapping tasks to classify motor coordination impairments in Para swimming. Design Cross-sectional. Met...

Objectives: The International Paralympic Committee has mandated that International Sport Federations develop sport-specific classification systems that are evidence-based. This study examined the predictive and convergent validity of instrumented tapping tasks to classify motor coordination impairments in Para swimming. Design: Cross-sectional. Met...

This study examined the validity of isometric strength tests for evidence-based classification in Para swimming. Thirty non-disabled participants and forty-two Para swimmers with physical impairment completed an isometric strength test battery designed to explain activity limitation in the freestyle discipline. Measures pertaining to dominant and n...

Achondroplasia is a genetic mutation of fibroblast growth factor receptor resulting in impaired growth plate development in long bones due to lower collagen turnover. Despite the characteristic shorter stature and lower strength in Achondroplasic groups, little is known of the tendon mechanical properties under loading. The aim of this study was th...

Swimming is one of the inaugural sports within the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the key difference between the Olympic and Paralympic games being the classification system. The aim of this study was to investigate how effective the current classification system creates clearly differentiated Paralympic competition classes, based on performance tim...

The International Paralympic Committee has directed International Federations that govern Para sports to develop evidence‐based classification systems. This study defined the impact of limb deficiency impairment on 100 m freestyle performance to guide an evidence‐based classification system in Para Swimming, which will be implemented following the...

The disproportionate body mass and leg length of Achondroplasic individuals may affect their net oxygen consumption (V͘O2) and metabolic cost (C) when walking at running compared to those of average stature (controls). The aim of this study was to measure submaximal V͘O2 and C during a range of set walking speeds (SWS; 0.56 – 1.94 m⋅s⁻¹, increment...

Objectives: To evaluate the reliability of swimming-specific range of movement tests developed in order to permit evidenced-based classification in the sport of para swimming. Design: Test-retest intra- and inter-examiner reliability. Setting: International Swimming training camps and university exercise science departments. Participants: 42...

The aims of this study were to investigate whether land-based and tethered swimming strength tests can explain swimming performance in 200-meter front crawl and, whether these tests were able to identify bilateral symmetry in force production. In the first session, eighteen swimmers completed a maximum effort 200 m front crawl swim (swimming perfor...

The purpose of this study was to compare arm-leg coordination and kinematics during 100 m breaststroke in 26 (8 female; 18 male) specialist breaststroke swimmers. Laps were recorded using three 50-Hz underwater cameras. Heart rate and blood lactate were measured pre- and post-swim. Arm-leg coordination was defined using coordination phases describi...

INTRODUCTION: Passive drag is the resistance a body encounters when moving through the water while holding a fixed body position. Oh et al. (2013) reported a significant correlation between para-swimmers’ passive drag and their IPC classification, that is, as the severity of swimming-specific impairment decreased, so did the passive drag. Active dr...

INTRODUCTION: A fair classification system in swimming should evaluate objectively an individual’s potential to produce propulsion effectively while minimising the drag forces from the water, within the constraints imposed by their physical impairment. It has been argued that the current classification system attaches insufficient importance to eva...

The combined event is a crucial aspect of the modern pentathlon competition, but little is known about how shooting performance changes through the event. This study aimed to identify (i) how performance-related variables changed within each shooting series and (ii) how performance-related variables changed between each shooting series. Seventeen m...

Due to the difficulty of measuring forces and torques acting on a swimmer during mid-pool swimming, an inverse dynamics approach is required. Personalised body segment parameter (BSP) data enabling calculation of net forces and torques can be obtained using the elliptical zone method. The purpose of this study was to establish the reliability of es...

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the effect of swimming speed on leg-to-arm coordination in competitive unilateral arm amputee front crawl swimmers. Thirteen well-trained swimmers were videotaped underwater during three 25-m front crawl trials (400 m, 100 m and 50 m pace). The number, duration and timing of leg kicks in relation to arm...

Abstract This study examined changes in the propulsive force and stroke parameters of arm-amputee and able-bodied swimmers during tethered swimming. Eighteen well-trained female swimmers (nine unilateral arm amputees and nine able-bodied) were videotaped performing maximal-effort 30 s front-crawl swims, while attached to a load cell mounted on a po...

The key difference between the Olympic and Paralympic Games is the use of classification systems within Paralympic sports to provide a fair competition for athletes with a range of physical disabilities. In 2009, the International Paralympic Committee mandated the development of new, evidence-based classification systems. This study aims to assess...

INTRODUCTION: When swimmers move through the water they experience a retarding force known as drag. As drag force is affected by the size and shape characteristics of the swimmer's body (e.g. height, shoulder width), it is important to measure these variables to gain an improved understanding of why some swimmers create more drag than others (often...

Abstract Despite the importance of the Combined Event to the modern pentathlon competition, little is known about performance in the event. This study aimed to (i) identify the key variables affecting Combined Event shooting performance, and the extent to which these corresponded with those identified for precision shooting and (ii) investigate the...

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The rolling actions of the shoulders and hips (bodyroll) in front-crawl and backstroke reflect the rhythmical contributions of the lower limbs, the actions of the upper limbs, and gravitational effects. The timing of the shoulder and hip rotations varies between and within swimmers, depending on speed, the stage of the race, and the nature of the k...

This study examined the effect of swimming speed on inter-arm coordination and the inter-relationships between swimming speed, inter-arm coordination, and other stroke parameters, in a group of competitive unilateral arm amputee front crawl swimmers. Thirteen highly-trained swimmers were filmed underwater during a series of 25-m front crawl trials...

Only a limited amount of research has gone into evaluating the contribution made by the upper arm to the propulsion of elite swimmers with an amputation at elbow level. With assistance of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling, the swimming technique of competitive arm amputee swimmers can be assessed through numerical simulations which test...

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between swimming speed (SS), stroke length (SL), and stroke frequency (SF) for competitive single-arm amputee front crawl swimmers and assess their relationships with anthropometric characteristics. Thirteen highly trained swimmers (3 male, 10 female) were filmed underwater from a lateral...

Paper presented at the 27th International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sport, held in Limerick, Ireland, 17-21 August, 2009. Full text of the proceedings is available at http://isbs2009-com.access.secure-ssl-servers.biz/

In front crawl swimming, the hand and the corresponding forearm generate major propulsive forces. Such forces have been studied largely through experimental tests and more recently through the use of steady computational fluid dynamics (CFD). However, the effect of the upper arm on the propulsive forces has generally not been taken into considerati...

Paper presented at the 6th Annual British Paralympic Association Sports Science, Medicine and Coaching Conference, Loughborough, UK, 2008

Published in association with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, this is the only up-to-date, practical guide to using the range of biomechanics movement analysis machines, equipment and software available today. It includes detailed explanations of the key theory underlying biomechanics testing, along with advice concerning ch...

The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of simple non moulded flat based insoles on three-dimensional foot motion during normal walking. Excessive foot pronation is considered a major contributing factor to lower limb injuries. Moulded foot orthoses have been shown to decrease maximum foot eversion. Simple insoles are widely used in c...

Las salidas en natación suponen, cada vez más, un componente muy importante del tiempo final de prueba. Los problemas que plantea la investigación de la salida de espalda, debido a que parte del movimiento sucede dentro del agua y parte fuera, ha hecho que no aparezcan estudios previos que aporten luz a las dudas que plantean los entrenadores y los...

The purpose of this study was to present a method of determining the contributions made by rotations of the trunk and upper extremity to hand velocity during the front crawl pull, and to illustrate this with an example. Six male swimmers performed front crawl trials at their middle distance pace (1.52 ± 0.12 m.s-1). Their underwater arm stroke was...

Front crawl swimmers often restrict the number of breaths they take during a race because of the possible adverse effects of the breathing action on resistance or stroke mechanics. The aim of this study was to determine whether differences exist in the kinematics of the trunk and upper extremity used during preferred-side breathing and breath-holdi...

Full-text of this article is not available in this e-prints service. This article was originally published in Physiotherapy, published by and copyright Elseiver. Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is a common problem presenting to physiotherapists. One successful approach to treatment involves taping of the patella, which theoretically facilitates...

Full-text of this article is not available in this e-prints service. This article was originally published following peer-review in Journal of Applied Biomechanics, published by and copyright Human Kinetics. The aim of this study was to predict the effect of body roll on hand speed and hand path during the pull phase in front crawl swimming. An ear...

The aim of this investigation was to establish the relationship between short-term perceived comfort and pressure distribution on the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the foot, while walking in a range of commercially available casual footwear. The study was carried out in the biomechanics laboratory of Manchester Metropolitan University using 15 mal...

Propulsive forces are important determinants of swimming performance. The aim of this study was to quantify the measurement error (uncertainty) in propulsive forces calculated from kinematic data. Ten operators digitized underwater video recordings of a breaststroke swimmer's right arm action. Four landmarks on the hand were digitized at 50 Hz and...

Published in association with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, this is the only up-to-date, practical guide to using the range of biomechanics movement analysis machines, equipment and software available today. It includes detailed explanations of the key theory underlying biomechanics testing, along with advice concerning ch...

Paper presented at the 16th FINA World Congress on Sports Medicine, Manchester, UK, 2008

Full text of this article is available at http://www.fade.up.pt/rpcd/_arquivo/RPCD_vol.6_supl.2.pdf The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of repeated sprint performance and fatigue on the kinematics of butterfly swimming. Six experienced national youth male butterfly swimmers undertook a maximal effort repeated sprint test set, duri...