Anil K. Pokharia

• MSc (Botany); PhD (Archaeobotany)
• Researcher at Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences

Understanding the interplay between subsistence strategies and settlement patterns is fundamental for elucidation of past economical and cultural changes. Gujarat, on the periphery of the Harappan universe, has distinct regional traditions, including material culture displaying an independent style with the local indigenous hunter and food-gatherin...

An assessment of a good number of archaeological datasets available so far on small-grained millets from core (Upper Indus) and peripheral regions of the Indus/Harappan civilization is made to understand their role in the ancient crop economy and their diversity and spatial extent in relation to cultural change. Among the millets, sorghum millet fr...

Analysis of 29 samples of carbonized plant material from Chalcolithic Ojiyana, Rajasthan, dated to 3rd-2nd millennium BC is presented. The unusual location of this site on the hill slope makes it unique among other sites of this culture in the region that flourished in river valleys. Comprehensive information on agriculture-based subsistence econom...

Here we report the results of an archaeobotanical study carried out on Ceramic Neolithic (2700–2000 bc) and Kushan period (ad 100–300) deposits at Kanispur, Kashmir, northern India. Botanical evidence from the Ceramic Neolithic phase reflects a nascent agriculture based on cold-tolerant crops (barley, wheats, lentil, field pea and grass pea) relate...

An attempt was made to trace the antiquity of custard apple in India on the basis of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and liquid scintillation counting (LSC) radiocarbon dates. Recently, seed remains of custard apple (Annona squamosa L.) in association with wood charcoals were encountered from the Neolithic archaeological site of Tokwa at the co...

For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a series of royal burials with chariots have been recovered from the Chalcolithic period at the archaeological site Sinauli (29°8′28″N; 77°13′1″E), Baghpat district, western Uttar Pradesh, India. Eight burials were excavated from the site; among them a royal burial with copper decorated legged coffin (...

Stable isotopic compositions of carbon and nitrogen (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) of archaeological grains/seeds recovered from different cultural layers of an Indus (Harappan) archaeological site 4MSR (29°12'87.2"N; 73°9'421"E; Binjor, western Rajasthan, India) provide insights into the Harappan agriculture between ~2900 to ~1800 BCE. The δ¹³C values were used to...

he relationship between historical climate change and past agricultural production contributes to a better understanding of the impacts of projected climate change by providing empirical data for resilient human responses. This study explores the periods of dynastic transitions and crop production at the urban site of Vadnagar, in semi-arid northwe...

Agricultural strategies and adaptation during Indus era in north-western India

Stable isotopic compositions of carbon and nitrogen (δ ¹³ C, δ ¹⁵ N) of archaeological grains/seeds recovered from different cultural layers of an Indus archaeological site 4MSR (29°12'87.2"N; 73°9'421"E; Binjor, western Rajasthan, India) provide insights into the Harappan agriculture between ~ 2900 to ~ 1800 BCE. While δ ¹³ C values were used to r...

This article reviews the current state of botanical and archaeological evidences that bears the origin, distribution, genetic diversity, and cultivation of the Carthamus sp. in the Indian subcontinent and other parts of the world. This review provides an important compendium of evidences for Carthamus and related species in different geographical l...

The pollen morphological study was carried out in the subfamily Papilionoideae using Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) to facilitate the identification of pollen in sedimentary archives. Pollen has long been used as an excellent proxy for understanding past vegetation, ecology, climate and agricultural strategies of ancient settlements and...

Agriculture has a major role in influencing landscapes, soils and subsistence since its inception. Though agriculture is a human effort but, it has intimate link(s) with contemporary environment. Fossilised organic remains (charred seeds/grains) recovered from archaeological excavations reveal wealthy information about past agricultural practices a...

The dung of the Indian wild ass was analyzed using biotic and abiotic proxies to determine its dietary habits in relation to the plant diversity and ecology in the arid region of western India. The presence of both micro and macrobotanical remains of Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Fabaceae indicates they are the primary food plants of the wild ass. T...

Monsoon in the Indian sub–continent remains a seasonal phenomenon which is awaited by all of the humans of the sub–continent. It has long drawn the reverence of monks, travellers, poets, traders and researchers. All mortals from the sub–continent have looked to it from their own perspective and it continues to be the subject of intense multi–dimens...

Recent archaeobotanical data from preliminary fieldwork during Phase 1 of the Kashmir Prehistory Project has documented the presence of West and East Asian cereals and pulses in contexts dating to ca. 2400 BCE in the Kashmir Valley. Based on these data and the geography of the Kashmir Valley, we have interpreted the valley to be an important node i...

This paper investigates the eastern movements of barley grains and their morphological variations in prehistory. By combining previously published and newly collected archaeobotanical grain measurements (n = 2,176), we explore the roles of culinary traditions underlying the morphological traits observed. We find that barley diminished in size as it...

This paper presents the results of plant macro–remain analysis from Iron Age–Historic settlement sites in Ganga Plain. The plant remains affirm the presence of distinct agricultural economy based on cereals (Oryza sativa, Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum, Triticum sphaerococcum), pulses (Lathyrus sativus, Vigna sp., Macrotyloma uniflorum), oil–fi...

Modern feces samples of the endangered red panda (Ailurus fulgens) were examined using multiproxy analysis to characterize the dietary patterns in their natural habitat in India. An abundance of Bambusoideae phytoliths and leaves (macrobotanical remains) provide direct evidence of their primary dietary plants. In contrast, Bambusoideae pollen is sp...

The Early Iron Age settlements in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra have given evidence on the well-settled protohistoric lifeways sustaining on agro-pastoral economy, craft production, and the hinterland trade and commerce. The archaeobotanical evidence comes from sites like Naikund, Khairwada and Bhagimohari where a number of plant species were...

We present results of the macrobotanical remains from an Early Iron Age site Rithi Ranjana in the Vidarbha region, Maharashtra, India. Analysis of 34 floated samples indicates that the likely staple food-grains were Oryza sativa, Hordeum vulgare and Triti-cum aestivum. Besides, few minor crops, pulses and oil/fibre-yielding plants have been retriev...

Indus civilization spanned between fifth to second millennia BCE in northwestern part of Indian subcontinent. Palaeo-channel of dry Ghaggar river (erstwhile Saraswati) emanating from northwest Himalayas and flowing towards southwest of India via western Rajasthan and Gujarat along the Indus river has revealed numerous ancient Indus (Harappan) settl...

We present the plant macroremains from the site of Vadnagar, an important centre of Buddhist learning in western India spanned between first century BCE and fourth century CE. The cultural relics and AMS dates of the recovered carbonized seeds from the cultural horizon also confirm the archaeological context. The study indicate that the likely stap...

We present a continuous palaeoclimatic record of 5980 years (7230 cal BP–1250 cal BP) from Hetapatti, a Neolithic site situated on the western fringe of the Central Ganga Plain. The region was a center of reurbanisation following the decline of the Harappan civilisation and is considered a hub of economic, political and religious evolution since th...

Here we present a continuous palaeoclimatic record of 5980 years (7230 cal BP–1250 cal BP) from Hetapatti, a Neolithic site situated on the western fringe of the Central Ganga Plain. The region was a center of reurbanisation following the decline of the Harappan civilisation and is considered a hub of economic, political and religious evolution sin...

Reconstructing Crop economy and based on archaeobotanical evidence and radiocarbon dates from Rithi Rajana: An Early Iron Age site in semi-arid Vidarbha, Maharashtra, India

Agriculture has a major role in influencing landscapes, soils, vegetation and subsistence since its inception. Though agriculture is a human effort but, it has intimate link(s) with contemporary environment. Charred seeds recovered from archaeological excavations reveal wealthy information about past agricultural practices. Likewise, stable carbon...

The mountainous areas of Inner Asia are now well established as a vector for the transmission of a number of cropplants between their centres of domestication in West and East Asia. Recent studies have indicated that agro-pastoralist populations in these mountains translocated wheat and barley to northwest China by as early as5200 BP, while archaeo...

Here we present direct dates of food grains and insights into agricultural strategies adopted by Harappans from a newly excavated Indus site 4MSR (Binjor) in northwestern India. The site revealed Early and Mature Harappan phases delimited by a Transitional phase based on ceramics and archaeological artifacts. The macro-botanical remains revealed th...

The mountainous areas of Inner Asia are now well established as a vector for the transmission of a number of crop plants between their centres of domestication in West and East Asia. Recent studies have indicated that agro-pastoralist populations in these mountains translocated wheat and barley to northwest China by as early as 5200 BP, while archa...

We present the first systematic evaluation of the relationship between the archaeological and palaeoclimatic record from north-western India during the past millennium, from the urban site of Chandravati. The rarity of Medieval sites, systematic excavations and multi-disciplinary work in the subcontinent obscure the impact of two distinct climate a...

A high number industrial hearths, furnaces, and kilns were excavated from an Indus archaeological site 4MSR (western Rajasthan, India) on the dry bed of Ghaggar-Hakra (erstwhile Saraswati) river channel near India-Pakistan international border, providing numerous artifacts of Indus metallurgical activity (jewellery items made of Copper (Cu), Gold (...

Analytical identification using phytochemical test, light and scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of Careya arborea stem fibres and rice husk mixed as an organic additive in the historic plaster. In the coastal regions of Western Ghats, India, C. arborea stem fibre having antioxidant, antimicrobial and termite resistance properties h...

Analytical identification using phytochemical test, light and scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of Careya arborea stem fibres and rice husk mixed as an organic additive in the historic plaster. In the coastal regions of Western Ghats, India, C. arborea stem fibre having antioxidant, antimicrobial and termite resistance properties h...

The present paper provides a comprehensive pollen morphological study of 45 tropical plant species belonging to 29 natural families from the Central Ganga Plain. The pollen characters of the plant species portray great variation with respect to the nature of apertures, shapes, sizes and exine sculpturings. These characters have been well illustrate...

The paper highlights additional data on the carbonized remains of crop plants, weeds and wild taxa recovered from excavations at Sarethi, a multicultural site in district Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh. The field–crops are represented by the grains and seeds of Oryza sativa (rice), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aestivum (bread wheat), T. sphaerococcu...

Several hypotheses have been proposed to solve the conundrum of the cause of transition of Harappan civilization to a de-urbanized form in its Late Phase. In view of this, high-resolution off-site palaeoclimatic records along with archaeological findings provide strong evidence of an abrupt climate change ∼4000 yr BP (before present) that coincides...

The study reports the micro-and macrobotanical remains on wild Yak dung, providing evidence for understanding the diet, habitat, and ecology of extant and extinct megaherbivores. Grasses are the primary diet of the yak as indicated by the abundance of grass pollen and phytoliths. Other associated non-arboreal and arboreal taxa namely, Cyperacaeae,...

The study reports the micro-and macrobotanical remains on wild Yak dung, providing evidence for understanding the diet, habitat, and ecology of extant and extinct megaherbivores. Grasses are the primary diet of the yak as indicated by the abundance of grass pollen and phytoliths. Other associated non-arboreal and arboreal taxa namely, Cyperacaeae,...

The study reports the micro-and macrobotanical remains on wild Yak dung, providing evidence for understanding the diet, habitat, and ecology of extant and extinct megaherbivores. Grasses are the primary diet of the yak as indicated by the abundance of grass pollen and phytoliths. Other associated non-arboreal and arboreal taxa namely, Cyperacaeae,...

The study reports the micro- and macrobotanical remains on wild Yak dung, providing evidence for understanding the diet, habitat, and ecology of extant and extinct megaherbivores. Grasses are the primary diet of the yak as indicated by the abundance of grass pollen and phytoliths. Other associated non-arboreal and arboreal taxa namely, Cyperacaeae,...

Pollen frequencies data generated from Yak (Bos mutus) dung samples. (XLSX)

An assessment of palynofacies and sediment data from a core sampled at Harshad estuary, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India was carried out for palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstruction. Drawing on these data we evaluate their relation to cultural/economic changes during the early to late Harappan phases in the peripheral zone of southwest monso...

The Valley of Kashmir in the western Himalayas holds a large number of Neolithic sites that are part of a loosely affiliated group of prehistoric cultures occupying mountains and valleys in the north of the Indian subcontinent – the Northern Neolithic. Despite extensive excavations at several sites in the 20th century, full reports on key sites are...

Sediment profile of a 1.9 m thick deposit from Mandovari lake, Sirohi district, Rajasthan, India was analysed for palynological and grain size analysis. The palynological data indicates between 658−1450 CE, dominance of arboreal taxa comprising arboreal taxa viz. Bombax, Syzygium, Ziziphus, Anacardiaceae along with the aquatic elements such as Lemn...

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187405.].

The study present to document the micro and macrobotanical remain on wild Yak dung to understand the diet, habitat, and ecology in relation to determining possible ecological relationships with extant and extinct megaherbivores. Grasses are the primary diet of the yak as indicated by the abundance of grass pollen and phytoliths, though it is obviou...

Sorghum bicolor (jowar-millet), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl-millet) and Eleusine coracana (Ragi millet), African origin crops, were introduced and cultivated in India during 3000 BCE. These millets are drought resistant, summer crop and widely grown in the tropical areas. Evidence of millets reported from the region of Gujarat (semiarid to arid zone)...

Today, farmers in many regions of eastern Asia sow their barley grains in the spring and harvest them in the autumn of the same year (spring barley). However, when it was first domesticated in southwest Asia, barley was grown between the autumn and subsequent spring (winter barley), to complete their life cycles before the summer drought. The quest...

(including Table A and Figs A-C). (DOCX)

Archaeological sites hold important clues to complex climate-human relationships of the past. Human settlements in the peripheral zone of Indus culture (Gujarat, western India) are of considerable importance in the assessment of past monsoon-human-subsistence-culture relationships and their survival thresholds against climatic stress exerted by abr...

The contour map of the excavation plan at Khirsara archaeological site (Kachchh, Gujarat India). Black arrows show locations of major trenches AF-35 and Z-38 used for recovering palaeo- subsistence patterns and chronostratigraphy of depth scale. (TIFF)

Variation of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) in the perspective of climate change is a subject of utmost concern. In this context, it is pertinent to study the variation in palaeo-moisture conditions (rainfall and relative humidity (RH)) during ISM, over the main Indian landmass. Rice is a water-intensive crop whose very presence in archaeological...

A multi-proxy study involving phytoliths, diatoms, thecamoebians and sponge spicules was carried out on a trench profile (260 cm deep) from Karela Lake in the Central Ganga Plain to reconstruct climatic variations since ca. 17,000 cal BP. The testate amoebae record indicate spells of winter monsoon between ca. 17,000 cal BP and 13,700 cal BP. Incre...

Tracing palaeo-anthropogenic activities from India archaeological sites using multiple ethano-botanical, geochemical, stable isotopic proxies: Implications for the Anthropocene

Today, farmers in many regions of eastern Asia sow their barley grains in the spring and harvest them in the autumn of the same year (spring barley). However, when it was first domesticated in southwest Asia, barley was grown between the autumn and subsequent spring (winter barley), to complete their life cycles before the summer drought. The quest...

Increase in grain/seed size recurrently features as a key element in the ‘domestication syndrome’ of plants (cf. Zohary and Hopf 2000; Fuller et al. 2014). In the context of its spread across Eurasia, however, the grain size of one of the world's major crop species underwent a substantial reduction. Between the fifth and second millennia BC, the gr...

Preliminary ethnobotanical investigations to understand Early to Mature Harappan human settlement history from the vicinity of Ghaggar river channel (western Rajasthan, India)

We present archaeobotanical data based on plant macroremains obtained from three archaeological sites in the Ganga Plain. The paper provides insight into a range of taxa exploited by early inhabitants of different cultural occupations spanning from about beginning of 3rd millennium BC to 2nd century BC and also for the change in plant use over time...

Archaeobotanical data on farming practices during the Neolithic (2500 BC) to Early Historic (200 BC) in the Ganga Plain, India.

Archaeobotany at Khirsara (2600-2000 BC), a Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India

Increase in grain/seed size recurrently features as a key element in the ‘domestication syndrome’ of plants (cf. Zohary and Hopf 2000; Fuller et al. 2014). In the context of its spread across Eurasia, however, the grain size of one of the world's major crop species underwent a substantial reduction. Between the fifth and second millennia BC, the gr...

Integrating macro-botanical and stable carbon isotopic data of Harappan site (4500-3900yrs BP), Khirsara, Kachchh (Gujarat), India: Implications to crop-vegetation changes, monsoonal conditions and adaptation

Palaeoethnobotanical investigations at Neolithic Hetapatti, Allahabad, U.P.

Human adaptation and plant economy in coastal western India during 5000 to 4000 yrs BP: A palaeoethnobotanical approach

This article embodies an impressive array of data on the carbonized remains of crop plants, weeds and wild taxa recovered from archaeological excavations at Ahichchhatra, a multicultural site in Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh. The crop-remains are represented by the grains and seeds of Oryza sativa (rice), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aesti...

This article embodies an impressive array of data on the carbonized remains of crop plants, weeds and wild taxa recovered from archaeological excavations at Ahichchhatra, a multicultural site in Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh. The crop-remains are represented by the grains and seeds of Oryza sativa (rice), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aesti...

Pollen analysis of a 2.6 m thick sediment profile from Karela Jheel has indicated that between 14,000 and 12,500 cal BP, open grassland with sparingly distributed trees such as Holoptelea integrifolia and Oroxylum occurred in the region under a cool and dry climate. The meager presence of aquatic elements viz., Potamogeton, Typha and fresh-water al...

The present book is work is an outcome of a joint research program initiated by the Department of Arts and Culture (Government of Nagaland) and the Anthropological Society of Nagaland from 2008-09. Aimed at both the specialist and the general reader alike, the volume discusses issues ranging from early agriculture, chronology, technology, hunting-g...

We present here the results of a study of plant macroremains in the archaeological lexicon from six sites in Nagaland, NE India dated between late first millennium BC to second millennium AD as obtained by radiocarbon dating of wood charcoal. The excavations at these sites were conducted between 2008 and 2010 jointly by the Department of Art and Cu...

This article presents the results of 4 excavation seasons in which botanical and animal remains were collected at the Harappan site of Kanmer in the Kachchh District of Gujarat, India. The findings revealed a subsistence economy consisting of food production with domesticated plants and animals, hunting, fishing, and wild plant gathering. Cultural...

The paper reviews the notable development in plant economy of the Harappan civilization with cultural development during Early Harappan (3000-2600 BC), Mature Harappan (2600-2000 BC) and Late Harappan (2000-1200 BC) times. The records of crop remains of West Asian, Eurasian, African and indigenous origin from widely scattered sites indicate well-kn...

The investigations of carbonized remains from an ancient site, Tokwa on the confluence of Belan and Adwa rivers in Mirzapur District of Uttar Pradesh, have brought to light the agriculture based subsistence economy during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. The crop-remains are represented by Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, L...

The results of the study of archaeobotanical samples from Neolithic site, Jhusi, at the confluence of Yamuna and Ganga rivers in Allahabad, UP, are presented here and discussed in the light of information on prehistoric plants of subsistence in Ganga Plain during 7th millennium BC-2nd century BC. The study indicates that the likely staples were cer...

The present article seeks to highlight an overall synthesis of information on the pre- and proto-historic agriculture based subsistence economy, in north-eastern Vindhyas. The vast area stretching over the plateau region and alluvial tract in adjacent plain, envelope a large number of early settlements, which reveal the gradually evolving sequences...

Investigation of botanical remains from an ancient site, Tokwa at the confluence of Belan and Adwa rivers, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh (UP), has brought to light the agriculture-based subsistence economy during the Neolithic culture (3rd-2nd millennium BC). They subsisted on cereals, viz. Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum and Hordeum vulgare, su...