Andrew P. Hill

• PhD
• Professor at York St John University

The purpose of the current paper is to review research examining multidimensional perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise. We start by providing a conceptual overview of perfectionism. We then describe three main approaches to examining perfectionism. These approaches are an independent effects approach, the tripartite model, and the 2 × 2 m...

I reply to Stoeber and Gaudreau’s (2017) recent commentary on my paper outlining the “perils of partialling” when examining multidimensional perfectionism (Hill, 2014). In my original paper I argued that the conceptual meaning of one of the two superordinate dimensions of perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, may change once its relationship wi...

Valid and reliable instruments are required to appropriately study perfectionism. With this in mind, three studies are presented that describe the development and initial validation of a new instrument designed to measure multidimensional performance perfectionism for use in sport (Performance Perfectionism Scale–Sport [PPS-S]). The instrument is b...

A meta-analysis of research examining the relationships between multidimensional perfectionism and burnout is provided. In doing so, relationships before and after controlling for the relationship between dimensions of perfectionism were examined along with whether relationships were moderated by domain (work, sport, or education). A literature sea...

Perfectionism is a personality characteristic that has been found to predict sports performance in athletes. To date, however, research has exclusively examined this relationship at an individual level (i.e., athletes’ perfectionism predicting their personal performance). The current study extends this research to team sports by examining whether,...

The study provides a qualitative exploration of how soccer players reporting perfectionism navigate challenges in talent pathways. Eighteen players (10 females, eight males, M age = 16.17 years, SD = 3.47) from talent pathways with higher levels of perfectionism and perfectionistic cognitions (1 SD above the mean of samples from previous studies) p...

Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality characteristic associated with mental health problems. However, its features are commonly misunderstood, and many people are unaware of the risks it can pose. This study aimed to develop the first self-report measure of perfectionism literacy. That is, the degree of knowledge someone has about perfect...

Purpose We provide the first systematic review and meta-analysis of research examining multidimensional perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—and orthorexia. Methods The systematic review and meta-analysis was pre-registered and conducted using a search of PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Education Abstracts, and Oxford Academic,...

The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) and the Existential Model of Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms (EMPDS) are promising models of perfectionism and psychopathology. However, research examining suicide ideation within the PSDM is scarce, and no research has examined suicide ideation as an outcome in the EMPDS. Moreover, tests of...

Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait with two higher-order dimensions; perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. The purpose of the present study was to explore and evaluate the two-factor model for the first time using three instruments developed to measure perfectionism in sport. In doing so, we (i) assessed the fit...

Youth soccer players face considerable pressure as they pursue a successful career in the sport. Research shows that some players navigate these pressures better than others, with the immediate coaching environment playing a key role. We examined the relationship between different perfectionism subtypes, and burnout, and depressive symptoms in yout...

There is currently limited understanding of how to reduce perfectionism in sport. With research outside of sport as impetus, in the present study, we evaluated the effectiveness of an online Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)-based intervention for reducing perfectionism and improving precompetition emotions in soccer players. Following a prer...

Research has recently begun to examine the relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and athletes' post-competition mood. However, to date, there have been few attempts to examine the interaction between dimensions of perfectionism or model possible explanatory processes. To address these limitations, in the current study we tested a nove...

Perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents is likely to contribute to the development of perfectionism in youth athletes. However, if and how perfectionistic pressure from coaches and parents interact to predict the development of perfectionism is unknown. With this in mind, the present study tested a new model – the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectio...

Research suggests that trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation are related to orthorexia - a pathological obsession with correct nutrition. However, no studies have examined these relationships over time or compared the influence of the two aspects of perfectionism on orthorexia. In the present study we sought to address these two...

Psychological skills training (PST) is a common and effective form of support provided by sports psychologists. Nevertheless, its use in helping support athletes with perfectionism and some of the problematic issues they can face is unknown. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of PST in reducing perfectionistic cognitio...

The purpose of this study was to explore the views and experiences of sport psychology consultants who have worked with perfectionistic elite athletes and, particularly, their views on the use of cognitive behavioral therapy. Semistructured interviews were conducted with four professional sport psychology consultants who identified themselves as hav...

Objectives: Uptake of the COVID-19 vaccine continues to be lower in ethnically diverse communities in the UK even though they are disproportionally affected by the negative effects of the virus. To better understand why uptake is lower, we explored factors that may underpin vaccine hesitancy and intention to vaccinate in these communities with an...

Recent evidence demonstrates rising self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism among young people from the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada (Curran & Hill, 2019). One reason why perfectionism is increasing may be that rising competitiveness and individualism are requiring parents to engage in anxious, overly invol...

Studies examining perfectionism, engagement and burnout in sport have produced different levels of support for the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. One explanation for why this is so is that researchers have used different measures of perfectionism when testing the hypotheses. To determine whether this is the case, in the current stu...

The COVID-19 pandemic forced the closure of schools in the UK and students had to study at home with limited access to the support they would have normally received. We designed this study to assess the experience of gifted and talented (GAT) students during this period and to identify factors related to their stress and self-regulation of learning...

The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) is a theory-driven model of the relationship between perfectionism, depressive symptoms, and suicide ideation. However, to date, tests of the PSDM have not included anti-mattering (i.e., feelings of not mattering alongside feelings of insignificance and marginalization) as a mediator or suicide id...

The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) is a theory-driven model of the relationship between perfectionism, depressive symptoms, and suicide ideation. However, to date, tests of the PSDM have not included anti-mattering (i.e., feelings of not mattering alongside feelings of insignificance and marginalization) as a mediator or suicide id...

With the increasing prevalence of mental health difficulties in sport, athletes may be at greater risk of burnout than ever before. In the present study, we tested this possibility by examining whether average athlete burnout levels have changed over the past two decades, from 1997 to 2019. A literature search returned 91 studies (N = 21,012) and 3...

This study tests whether perfectionism is a vulnerability factor for distress among female adolescents in the context of appearance-focused social comparison and use of social media. We hypothesized that perfectionism predicts greater depressive symptoms and lower body appreciation following appearance-focused upward social comparisons. One-hundred...

It has recently been argued that because the major two dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, PS and PC) can have opposing effects, the “combined effect” should be calculated to understand whether, overall, perfectionism is neutral, adaptive, or maladaptive. In this methodological note we revisit the ta...

Perfectionism is related to a number of problems for athletes that include performance and wellbeing difficulties. Some of these problems are due to their trait perfectionism and others due to the experience of perfectionistic cognitions - automatic ruminative thoughts and images about the need to be perfect. A small number of studies have examined...

Are feelings of not mattering an antecedent of depressive symptoms, a consequence, or both? Most investigations focus exclusively on feelings of not mattering as an antecedent of depressive symptoms. Our current study examines a vulnerability model, a complication model, and a reciprocal relations model according to a cross-lagged panel model (CLPM...

Purpose: The present study aimed to provide the first examination of whether perfectionistic self-presentation-an interpersonal expression of perfectionism-is related to orthorexia. Methods: We recruited a sample of 150 exercisers (Mean age = 27.7 years). Participants completed the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale and the ORTO-15 on a singl...

Attitudes towards help-seeking will contribute to whether athletes ask for support for performance and mental health issues when needed. While research outside of sport has found perfectionism is related to negative attitudes towards help-seeking, no studies have examined the relationship in sport. We provided the first test of whether perfectionis...

Perfectionism has traditionally been conceptualised as a personality trait. However, researchers have recently proposed a new construct–perfectionistic climate–which focusses on the degree to which the social environment is experienced as perfectionistic. In the current study, we apply this new construct to sport and begin the development and valid...

The present editorial provides a series of perspectives on the future of burnout in sport. Specifically, for the first time, seven burnout researchers offer their opinions and suggestions for how, as a field, we can progress our understanding of this important topic. A broad range of ideas are discussed including the relevance of the social context...

Research has illustrated that athlete perfectionism predicts athlete burnout. The present study sought to build on existing research in two ways. First, we provide the first test of the relationship between performance perfectionism and athlete burnout. That is, whether the degree to which athlete’s expect their own or others’ sport performances to...

Perfectionism has long been recognised as a psychological factor that can enhance or interfere with the healthy adjustment of young students who are academically gifted. However, it is apparent from existing research that a wide range of methods have been adopted to study perfectionism in this population. To identify what is currently known about p...

Researchers have recently turned their attention to examining interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism in sport and exercise. This is typified by research testing the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) and the use of simple slopes analysis to probe statistically significant interactions. The aim of this study was to...

Perfectionism predicts attitudes towards doping in athletes. It is currently unclear, however, why this is the case. To help shed light on this particular issue, in the present study we provided a first examination of whether achievement goal orientations explain (mediate) the relationship between perfectionism and attitudes towards doping. A sampl...

Building on research that has shown psychoeducational or self-help books to be effective in reducing perfectionism outside of sport, the current study examined the effectiveness of a self-help book (“When Perfect Isn’t Good Enough”) in reducing perfectionism among athletes. One hundred and fifteen soccer players (male = 44, female = 71, M age = 21....

Previous findings highlight the relationships between 2 × 2 perfectionism and burnout in dancers, but researchers are yet to examine the relationships between 2 × 2 perfectionism and, the opposing outcome of, engagement in dance. Similarly, we know little about the factors that may moderate these relationships. We therefore sought to extend previou...

This chapter reviews and reanalyzes research examining perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise. It compares the conclusion of Rees et al. with the notion of the perfectionism paradox and overviews perfectionism and the hierarchical model of perfectionism. The chapter describes three different approaches that have been used to study perfectionis...

Theory and research indicate that perfectionism can be intergenerationally transmitted by, among other things, social learning (e.g., parental imitation) and controlling forms of parental socialization. The current study extends this literature by combining and testing these ideas in a mediation model whereby child reported self-oriented and social...

Few studies have examined how perfectionism relates to athlete engagement. In addition, the studies that do exist have focused on the main effects of dimensions of perfectionism as opposed to their interactive effects. The first purpose of the study was therefore to examine the interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism in predicting athlet...

Initial research suggests that parental perfectionism is central to the development of athlete perfectionism. However, it is unclear whether perceived or actual parental perfectionism is most important. The present study aimed to address this issue in two ways. First, we reexamined the predictive ability of actual versus perceived parental perfecti...

Perfectionism may promote engagement in illegal and unacceptable behaviours such as doping. To examine this idea, in the present study, we had two aims. First, we reexamined the relationship between perfectionism and attitudes towards doping and, in doing so, conducted a continuously cumulating meta-analysis. Second, we extended our understanding o...

Perfectionism has historically been conceptualised as a personality characteristic – a personal quality of the individual. In this paper, we propose a new conceptualization of perfectionism that focuses on aspects of the social environment that are perfectionistic. Based upon motivational theory, we consider perfectionistic climate to be informatio...

Perfectionism has historically been conceptualised as a personality characteristic – a personal quality of the individual. In this paper, we propose a new conceptualization of perfectionism that focuses on aspects of the social environment that are perfectionistic. Based upon motivational theory, we consider perfectionistic climate to be informatio...

The measurement of perfectionistic cognitions has recently caused disagreement among researchers. Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein and Gray (1998) proposed that perfectionistic cognitions are unidimensional. However, after re-examining the factor structure of the instrument used to measure perfectionistic automatic thoughts (Perfectionism Cognitions Inven...

Objectives Perfectionism is linked to an array of cognitive, affective, and behavioral correlates in sport. However, research examining links between perfectionism and performance in competition, especially following failure, is scarce. The purpose of this study was to examine the interaction between two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism—per...

Perfectionism is related to pre-competition emotions in athletes. However, it is unclear why this is the case. In the present study, we sought to determine whether perfectionistic cognitions explain this relationship and mediate the relationships between self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), and general pre-com...

Objectives Research has found that the four subtypes of perfectionism from the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (i.e., Non-perfectionism, Pure PSP, Pure ECP, and Mixed perfectionism) are associated with different youth sport experiences. Extending this research, the current study examined the 2 × 2 model in regard to undesirable outcomes indicative of...

Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. We sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using three samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-se...

Great Britain’s Tom Daley won the gold medal in the men’s 10 metre platform dive at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships in Budapest. In winning the medal, Daley was awarded 12 perfect scores across six dives. Chen Aisen, the double gold winner at the 2016 Summer Olympics, was awarded three perfect scores of his own and won the silver medal. In th...

We respond to Soenens and Vansteenkiste's (2019) commentary on our meta-analysis (Curran & Hill, 2019) that evidenced increases in college students' perfectionism from 1989 to 2016. In speculating on possible reasons for the increase, we argued that increases in anxious and controlling parenting could partly account for this trend. Soenens and Vans...

Research has shown that perfectionism predicts emotional experiences among amateur, professional and adolescent musicians. In examining these relationships, previous research has measured trait perfectionism and employed cross-sectional designs. The current study builds on existing research by examining whether perfectionistic self-presentation (as...

Perfectionism and performance have long been intertwined. The conceptual history of this relationship is best considered complex, with some theorists maintaining that perfectionism is likely to impair performance and others more recently suggesting that aspects of perfectionism may form part of a healthy pursuit of excellence. Recent studies on per...

Perfectionism purportedly bestows vulnerability to distress via an interaction with achievement and interpersonal stress. We test this by assessing athletes’ perfectionism and subsequent self-conscious emotion following repeated competitive failure. Sixty college athletes undertook three 4-minute competitive sprint trials on a cycle ergometer and w...

Perfectionism purportedly bestows vulnerability to distress via an interaction with achievement and interpersonal stress. We test this by assessing athletes’ perfectionism and subsequent self-conscious emotion following repeated competitive failure. Sixty college athletes undertook three 4-minute competitive sprint trials on a cycle ergometer and w...

Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task among novice basketball players. The current study builds on this research by examining whether this is also the case for performance in a familiar basketball training task among experienced basketball players, and whether achievement goals mediated an...

The current study provides an updated and meta-analytical review of research examining multidimensional perfectionism in sport. In doing so, studies that report the relationships between perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns and a range of motivation, emotion/well-being, and performance criterion variables are examined. A literature s...

Previous research has found perfectionism dimensions to predict coping strategies in sport when dealing with various stressors. We aimed to extend previous research by examining the interactive effects of perfectionism dimensions on strategies employed by marathon runners to cope with injury. This involved testing the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model...

Objectives Research has found that trait and dispositional perfectionism are related to pre-competition emotions. However, less is known about whether other aspects of perfectionism, such as perfectionistic cognitions, are related to pre-competition emotions. To address this limitation, the current study examined (i) the relationship between self-o...

The relationship between perfectionism, burnout and depression among youth soccer players is of interest due to the competitive academy environments that must be navigated in order to become a professional soccer player. Three alternative theoretical models have been proposed to explain the relationship between perfectionism, burnout and depression...

Training distress occurs when athletes fail to cope with physiological and psychological stress and can be an early sign of overtraining syndrome. Recent research has found that perfectionism predicts increases in training distress in junior athletes over time. The current study provides the first empirical test of the possibility that coping tende...

Attitudes towards people with disabilities play an integral role in determining social inclusion. Unfortunately, attitudes are often negative and based on views of disability that are focused on impairment. The current study aimed to examine whether a commitment to perfection and flawlessness, in the form of trait perfectionism, predicted attitudes...

Objectives Research demonstrates that four subtypes of perfectionism from the 2 × 2 model are associated with different youth sport experiences. This study provided the first exploration of the experiences of youth sport participants exhibiting different subtypes of perfectionism using mixed-methods. Design A two-stage, mixed-methods, approach was...

In the current chapter we review research examining perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise with a view to comparing the possibility that perfectionism is a hallmark feature of elite athletes versus the existence of a “perfectionism paradox.” That is, while sport, dance, and exercise may encourage a focus on perfection, those that exhibit perfe...

Perfect performance, flawlessness, and the perfect body are revered in sport, dance, and exercise. As such, sport, dance, and exercise provide ideal domains in which to study perfectionism. This chapter provides an overview of research that has examined multidimensional perfectionism in these domains. We place particular emphasis on the most recent...

From the 1980’s onwards, neoliberal governance in the US, Canada, and the UK has emphasized competitive individualism and people have seemingly responded, in kind, by agitating to perfect themselves and their lifestyles. In this study, we examine whether cultural changes have coincided with an increase in multidimensional perfectionism in college s...

The purpose of the study was to conduct a systematic review and evaluation of research examining multidimensional perfectionism and cortisol in non-clinical populations. A literature search yielded 6 studies examining cortisol reactivity (CR) and 2 studies examining cortisol awakening response (CAR). Each study was rated in terms of the methodologi...

This letter concerns the review titled “The Great British Medalists Project: A Review of Current Knowledge on the Development of the World’s Best Sporting Talent”

I reply to Stoeber and Gaudreau's (2017) recent commentary on my paper outlining the “perils of partialling” when examining multidimensional perfectionism (Hill, 2014). In my original paper I argued that the conceptual meaning of one of the two superordinate dimensions of perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, may change once its relationship wi...

Studies show that the development of perfectionism in adolescence is associated with psychologically controlling parenting. The current study extends research in this area by examining the relationship between a specific aspect of psychologically controlling parenting, parental conditional regard, and two dimensions of perfectionism, self-critical...

Univariate and multivariate relationships between perfectionistic self-presentation and reactions to impairment and disability following spinal cord injury were examined. One hundred and forty-four adults with spinal cord injury (M = 48.18 years, SD = 15.96) completed self-report measures. Analyses revealed that, after controlling for time since in...

Recent research indicates perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings share divergent associations with athlete burnout and athlete engagement. Guided by self-determination theory, the present study examined whether these associations were explained by basic psychological needs. Youth athletes (n = 222, M age = 16.01, SD = 2.68) complete...

Research adopting self-determination theory (SDT) supports a mediation model whereby coach motivational styles (autonomy support and interpersonal control) predict athletes’ engagement and disaffection in youth sport via the satisfaction and frustration of psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). Our study extends this research...

A large portion of research that has examined perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise has done so by examining the effects of dimensions of perfectionism separately and, in many cases, their unique effects. In this chapter, we describe this approach and provide a summary of research that has adopted it in sport, dance, and exercise. In reviewin...

Recent research suggests that groups of athletes can be identified that differ in terms of perfectionism and perceptions of achievement climate. Moreover, these groups also differ in terms of burnout symptoms. The purpose of the current study was to extend this research by examining whether discernable groups can be identified based on scores of pe...

When adopting any measure of perfectionism to examine the characteristic in sport or the performing arts, researchers make assumptions regarding its core features and, sometimes, its effects. So to avoid doing so, in the current study we employed qualitative methods to examine the accounts of self-identified perfectionists. Specifically, the purpos...

Exercise dependence is a harmful pattern of exercise behaviour that research suggests is associated with trait perfectionism. The current study extends previous research by examining the relationship between symptoms of exercise dependence, trait perfectionism (self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism) and perfectionisti...

It is just over a decade since Vallerand et al. (J Personal Soc Psychol 85:756-767, 2003) introduced the dualistic model of passion. In this study, we conduct a meta-analytical review of relationships between Vallerand et al’s two passions (viz. harmonious and obsessive), and intrapersonal outcomes, and test the moderating role of age, gender, doma...

Youth sport is a source of well-being for adolescents, yet experiences vary and attrition can be high. We sought to better understand the coach behaviors that foster positive experiences in youth sport by examining relationships between the motivational climate and athlete engagement (viz., confidence, dedication, enthusiasm, and vigor). We reasone...

Examination of how coaches influence adolescents’ levels of engagement and disaffection in youth sport is important in light of the high attrition in this population. Grounded in self-determination theory, we proposed and tested a mediation model that described pathways linking perceptions of coach behavior (autonomy supportive versus controlling)...

The authors adopted the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism to examine the unique and interactive effects of two dimensions of perfectionism (personal standards perfectionism [PSP] and evaluative concerns perfectionism [ECP]) on personal and interpersonal indicators of participant experience in youth sport (enjoyment, physical self-worth, and friendship q...

The manner in which coaches regulate their emotions has implications for their performance and well-being. Drawing on research that has found perfectionism to predict emotion regulation in other settings, this study adopted the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism to examine whether subtypes of perfectionism among coaches were associated with variation in...

The present study examined the relationship between dance-related perfectionism and perceptions of motivational climate in dance over time. In doing so, three possibilities were tested: (a) perfectionism affects perceptions of the motivational climate, (b) perceptions of the motivational climate affect perfectionism, and (c) the relationship is rec...

Research suggests that self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism have unique and distinct motivational properties that are evident among junior athletes. Likewise, harmonious and obsessive passions encompass distinctive patterns of motivation. Based on suggestions that different dimensions of perfectionism may be associated...

Two recent reviews of research examining the effects of perfectionism in athletes concluded that perfectionistic strivings is adaptive when perfectionistic concerns are controlled or partialled. This study aims to provide a caveat to the conclusions of these reviews by highlighting the perils of partialling and illustrating how it is possible for t...

The purpose of this study was (1) to examine the factorial validity of the Behavioural Regulation Sport in Questionnaire (BRSQ) when completed by young soccer players in the Promoting Adolescent Physical Activity (PAPA) project (9-15 years old) in 5 European countries (France: n = 1248, Greece: n = 1507, Norway: n = 1397, Spain: n = 2245, and Engla...

The present research examined the influence of motivational profiles on the experience and engagement of first-year undergraduate students at a UK university. In two separate cohorts, three groups of students emerged who varied in their reasons for attending university across autonomous motivation (for knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation), c...

The potential benefits of children’s engagement in sport for their psychological, social, and physical health are well established. Yet children may also experience psychological and social impairments due, in part, to a variety of detrimental coach behaviors. In the current study, we proposed and tested a conditional process model of children’s se...

Research examining the perfectionism-burnout relationship has typically focused on the main effects of single dimensions of perfectionism. The purpose of the current study was to extend this research by examining the interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism in predicting symptoms of athlete burnout. In doing so, the hypotheses of the rece...