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Publications (599)
An optical parametric oscillator (OPO) is developed and characterized for the simultaneous generation of ultraviolet (UV) and near-UV nanosecond laser pulses for the single-shot Rayleigh scattering and planar laser-induced-fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of methylidyne (CH) and nitric oxide (NO) in turbulent flames. The OPO is pumped by a multichannel,...
The general influence of electric fields on flames has been known for many years, the underlying mechanisms, however, are not finally identified yet. The changes observable in the flame structure and the pollutant emission when a flame is exposed to an electric field are mainly attributed to the ionic wind. Yet, especially the resulting flame tempe...
This paper reports for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, on the simultaneous imaging of the gas-phase temperature and fuel vapor mass fraction distribution in a direct-injection spark-ignition (DISI) spray under engine-relevant conditions using tracer planar laser-induced fluorescence (TPLIF). For measurements in the spray, the fluoresc...
Zusammenfassung
Die spontane Raman-Streuung ist ein exzellentes, nichtinvasives, optisches Analysewerkzeug für die Identifikation und Quantifizierung von Majoritäts-Spezies in Multispezies-Gasmischungen. Der Effekt ist jedoch sehr schwach, bei Umgebungsdruck dauert es typischerweise mehrere Sekunden bis Minuten ein Gasphasen-Raman-Spektrum aufzuzei...
An in situ measurement technique based on Raman spectroscopy is established to simultaneously monitor the parameters of interest of the solid and gas phases during the formation and growth of carbon nanotubes (CNT) in a cold wall reactor for catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD). Iron nanoparticles were used as a catalyst and acetylene as a ca...
The liquid density, liquid kinematic viscosity, and surface tension of the segregated hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) HFE-7000 (1,1,1,2,2,3,3-heptafluoro-3-methoxy-propane), HFE-7100 (mixture of the isomers 1,1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4-nonafluoro-4-methoxy-butane and 1,1,1,2,3,3-hexafluoro-3-methoxy-2-(trifluoromethyl)propane), HFE-7200 (mixture of the isomers 1-eth...
A planar tracer laser-induced fluorescence technique using a new tracer pair is introduced and has been utilized for the simultaneous detection of the fuel-air ratio and the temperature to characterize mixture formation inside a direct-injection spark-ignition engine. The new tracer pair consists of triethylamine and 3-pentanone, which are simultan...
The spontaneous Raman scattering technique is an excellent tool for a quantitative analysis of multi-species gas mixtures. It is a noninvasive optical method for species identification and gas phase concentration measurement of Raman active molecules, since the intensity of the molecule specific Raman signal is linearly dependent on the concentrati...
The spontaneous Raman scattering technique is an excellent tool for a quantitative analysis of multi-species gas mixtures. It is a noninvasive optical method for species identification and gas phase concentration measurement of all Raman active molecules, since the intensity of the species specific Raman signal is linearly dependent on the concentr...
The high temperature sensitivity of the luminescence emission of thermographic phosphor (TP) particles favours its utilization for the measurement of wall or gas temperatures in combustion devices. The present work focuses on the luminescence behavior and suitability of two lanthanide ion types (Tm and Dy) doped in a YAG host crystal for high tempe...
In order to improve the phosphorescence emission behavior of phosphor powders for temperature measurements in a gas flow, the activator concentration in Dy:YAG was varied and the phosphor was co-doped with the sensitizer erbium (Er). Phosphorescence spectra, overall phosphorescence signal intensities and the phosphorescence lifetime were characteri...
The technique of laser-induced gratings (LIGs) has been applied to the simultaneous determination of speed of sound and thermal diffusivity of four 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ([EMIm])-based room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs): [EMIm][N(CN)2], [EMIm][MeSO3], [EMIm][C(CN)3], and [EMIm][NTf2] - at ambient pressure (1 bar (0.1 MPa)) and temperature...
This manuscript reports for the first time, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the in situ and non-invasive characterization of both solid and gaseous phases involved in a catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) process applied with the aim to grow carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The here reported characterization comprises the simultaneous in situ...
The influence of fin pitch, fin height, and number of tube rows (bundle depth) is investigated for the condensation of refrigerants 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a), 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (R1234yf), and trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (R1234ze) in bundles of integral finned tubes. An analytical model is developed to predict the condens...
The performance and emissions of modern automotive diesel engines are highly dependent on the application of pilot injection technology. This technology also appears well suited for application to low-temperature combustion strategies. In this study, the first results of a new quantitative planar laser-induced fluorescence equivalence ratio measure...
The issue of spatial averaging effect arises in CARS temperature measurements when the probe volume contains temperature gradients, a situation frequently encountered in turbulent reacting flows where flow patterns are irregular and temperature gradients are typically steep. In present work, a new dual-temperature fitting model is developed to deal...
To gain a basic understanding of biological and chemical processes the acquisition of unaltered information from a molecular level is crucial. It can be achieved by Raman spectroscopy. However, extracting relevant information from Raman signals of complex multi-component systems is demanding, but decisive to correctly explain the observed phenomena...
We propose a gas sensor, based on spontaneous Raman scattering, for the compositional analysis of typical biogas mixtures and present a description of the sensor, as well as of the calibration procedure, which allows the quantification of condensable gases. Moreover, we carry out a comprehensive characterization of the system, in order to determine...
Linear Raman scattering has been applied for the determination of the temperature of the liquid phase in water sprays under normal and superheated conditions. The envelope of the Raman OH-stretching vibration band of water is deconvoluted into five Gaussian peaks which can be assigned to five different intermolecular interactions (hydrogen bonding)...
The paper reports on a routine to extract the composition of multi-component mixtures from their Raman spectra at elevated pressures. The strategy is based on fitting weighted Raman spectra of the pure compounds to the measured Raman spectrum of the mixture, also considering the effects of intermolecular interactions onto the Raman spectra by apply...
To gain a deeper insight into the complex reaction chain of the DISI -combustion
with charge stratification, optical measurement techniques are necessary for the investigation of these sub-processes. For the simultaneous determination of temperature and concentration fields in evaporating gasoline direct injection sprays measurement technology of l...
Für ein tieferes Verständnis der komplexen Reaktionskette der ottomotorischen Verbrennung bei Direkteinspritzung und Ladungsschichtung ist eine Untersuchung der Teilprozesse mit optischen Messtechniken erforderlich. Für die gleichzeitige Bestimmung von Temperatur- und Konzentrationsfeldern in verdampfenden Sprays bei der Benzindirekteinspritzung wu...
Zusammenfassung
Die Zusammensetzung von Rohbiogas unterliegt prozessbedingt Fluktuationen, die nachgelagerte Prozesse störend beeinflussen können. In dieser Studie wird ein brenngasunabhängiges, auf den Grundlagen der linearen Raman-Streuung basierendes Messsystem vorgestellt, das in der Lage ist, bei geringem Gasdruck alle relevanten Biogaskompone...
![Figure 2: Absorption spectra of acetone [6] and TEA (previous,...](profile/Lars-Zigan/publication/265058197/figure/fig2/AS:295838162145290@1447544722429/Absorption-spectra-of-acetone-6-and-TEA-previous-unpublished-measurements-as-well-as_Q320.jpg)
The present study introduces an advanced measurement technique for multi-parameter imaging in optically accessible IC engines which is based on two planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) techniques. A LIF tracer mixture consisting of triethylamine (TEA) and acetone is used for the simultaneous determination of air/fuel-ratio, temperature and exha...
In this experimental study the effects of weak DC electric fields on laminar flames are studied. In the first part transient DC electric fields were applied with different frequencies (1–200 Hz) to a laminar Bunsen type flame for the investigation of the changes occurring in the flow field and the flame structure using planar laser induced fluoresc...
This study presents a fully functional optical sensor for anesthetic agents based
on spontaneous Raman scattering which offers several advantages in comparison to
established systems. The system performance is compared to a conventional monitoring
system.
Direct-injection (DI) concepts with spray-guided mixture formation are promising methods to increase the efficiency of spark ignition (SI) engines. The fuel and temperature distribution determines evaporation and ignition behavior. However, the resulting mixture and temperature are not homogeneous through the combustion chamber. Furthermore, it is...
In this study the effects of weak electric fields on laminar premixed Bunsen flames were studied using planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) of the formaldehyde molecules and the OH-radicals for flame structure characterization. Simultaneously particle image velocimetry (PIV) is applied to determine the changed flow field of the flame when a pos...
Raman spectra of ternary mixtures of unknown composition are processed to extract the content of the compounds in the mixture. The evaluation method of the ternary mixtures is based on a previous calibration of binary mixtures. The applicability of the method is demonstrated by measuring the vapour liquid equilibria of the ternary system carbon dio...
Mass transfer has been investigated quantitatively in the compressible ternary multi-phase system composed of the oil component ethyl acetate, water and carbon dioxide at the elevated pressure of 8.5 MPa and at temperatures of 298 K and 310.5 K. The multi-phase system has been generated inside a micro capillary. Each of the involved mass transfer p...
A straight forward and non-invasive strategy to quantify vapour-liquid equilibria (VLE) of the ternary system acetone, water and carbon dioxide (CO2) is reported. The strategy is based on extracting the composition of a ternary mixture from its Raman spectrum. An isolated Raman signal of acetone, which is not interfered with Raman signals of water...
Four potential laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) tracers, 1-phenyloctane, 1-phenyldecane, 1-methylnaphthalene, and 2-methylnaphthalene, are characterized for diesel engine applications. These tracers, embedded in the diesel primary reference fuels and iso-, match the relevant physical properties of commercial diesel fuel much better than the commonl...
![Fig. 2: Schematic drawing of the experimental setup [2]](profile/Alaa-Al-Badri/publication/309359630/figure/fig2/AS:11431281271430249@1723639529033/Schematic-drawing-of-the-experimental-setup-2_Q320.jpg)
A prediction method for the overall heat transfer coefficient (HTC) during the condensation on single integral finned tubes was developed. Inside the tubes, the convective heat transfer for cooling water is enhanced by helical ribs. The prediction method takes into account the annular temperature distribution around the tube wall and the longitudin...
To enhance the efficiency of direct injection engines, the understanding of the combustible mixture formation after a liquid fuel spray is injected is crucial; hence, the need is readily apparent for experimental methods that allow determining characteristic parameters such as fuel/air ratio and gas temperature. The paper demonstrates the potential...
The supercritical antisolvent technology is used to crystallize Paracetamol particles. Supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) is used as antisolvent. Ethanol, acetone and mixtures of ethanol and acetone are used as solvents. The initial concentration of paracetamol in the solution was varied between 1 and 5 wt %, the composition of the ethanol/aceton...
Hybrid femtosecond/picosecond (fs/ps) vibrational coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering was demonstrated for high-speed, in-situ measurements of CH4/N2 mole fractions in binary gas mixtures with temporal nonresonant suppression. A single broadband, 100-fs laser source was used to simultaneously excite CH4 and N2 vibrational Raman transitions, chara...
A spectral filtering approach for improving the sensitivity of two-color laser-induced incandescence measurements is proposed. The commonly used bandpass filters providing wavelength selection, and hence temperature sensitivity, are replaced by shortpass and longpass filters, respectively, allowing significantly higher signal intensities to be dete...
This paper reports on an investigation of the chemical stability of the common laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) tracers acetone, diethylketone, and toluene. Stability is analyzed using linear Raman spectroscopy inside a heated pressure cell with optical access, which is used for the LIF calibration of these tracers. The measurements examine the inf...
The applicability of shifted-excitation Raman difference spectroscopy (SERDS) in combination with signal regression analysis as an alternative and non-invasive approach for monitoring the cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms producing complex molecules of pharmaceutical relevance in a bioreactor is demonstrated. As a model system, the cultiva...
The paper presents an analytical model to calculate the condensation heat transfer coefficient on an integral finned tube. The model depends on elemental calculations by dividing the tube wall into small annular elements. It takes into consideration the local temperature distribution on the outside surface of the finned tube, the local heat transfe...
Mass transport between organic solvents (S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) has been investigated at pressures below the mixture critical pressure (MCP). Acetone and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) have been used as organic solvents. Profiles of the mixture composition have been measured through liquid solvent drops pendant at steady conditions in a pressurized...
The effect of fuel properties and fuel temperature on the behaviour of the internal nozzle flow, atomization and cyclic spray fluctuations is examined for a three-hole direct injection spark ignition injector by combining numerical simulation of the nozzle flow with macroscopic and microscopic spray visualization techniques. A dominant influence of...
Applying the laser-induced phosphorescence technique, the phosphorescence from a phosphor-coated surface can be used for the determination of the surface temperature during hydrocarbon fuel combustion in a porous media burner. A mixture of dysprosium–cerbium double-doped: yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:Er:YAG) thermographic phosphor powder and an adh...
Biofuels and alternative fuels are increasingly being blended to conventional gasoline fuel to reduce the overall CO2 emissions. The effect on NOx and soot formation is still unclear as the atomization and evaporation of gasoline with biocomponents differ depending on fuel specific physiochemical properties. This work focuses on describing the biof...
Fuel tracer-based planar laser-induced fluorescence is used to investigate the vaporization and mixing behavior of pilot injections for variations in pilot mass of 1-4 mg, and for two injection pressures, two near-TDC ambient temperatures, and two swirl ratios. The fluorescent tracer employed, 1-methylnaphthalene, permits a mixture of the diesel pr...
Measurements of ignition behavior, homogeneous reactor simulations employing detailed kinetics, and quantitative in-cylinder imaging of fuel-air distributions are used to delineate the impact of temperature, dilution, pilot injection mass, and injection pressure on the pilot ignition process. For dilute, low-temperature conditions characterized by...
In spark-ignition engines, high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates have demonstrated their potential in reducing fuel consumption and emissions. However, irregular combustion at high residual gas concentrations limits the EGR rates. The following study presents a strategy that has been developed to investigate the influence of complex charge mot...
A versatile guarded parallel-plate instrument for the measurement of the thermal conductivity in steady state is presented. The instrument stands out due to its applicability for fluids as well as solid bodies, bulk solids, and compressible solids. Besides flexibility regarding sample material and thickness, the instrument design is aimed at the mi...
In order to improve the efficiency of processes using supercritical (sc) carbon dioxide (CO2) to micronize the carotenoid “lycopene”, it is important to know the solubility of lycopene in mixtures of the organic solvent ethyl acetate (EA) and the antisolvent CO2 at elevated pressures. The solubility of lycopene has been determined for different tem...
This article addresses burner design and flame measurement based on the heat flux method which is among the most precise ways of determining the laminar burning velocity of premixed flames. Chemical data are available for gaseous fuel flames using a variety of burner setups. However, the data for the laminar burning velocities of liquid fossil fuel...
Mutual diffusivities for binary mixtures of the ionic liquids (ILs) [EMIM][N(CN)(2)] (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanimide), [EMIM][NTf(2)] (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide), and [HMIM][NTf(2)] (1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide) with acetone and ethanol were studied in dependence on comp...
CO2 sorption in molten poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) has been investigated by temporally resolved Raman line imaging, which is introduced here as a new technology for the direct measurement of gas mass fraction profiles inside polymers during transient sorption experiments. Molten PCL was exposed to pressurized carbon dioxide in an optically accessibl...
For the refrigerants 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a) and propane (R290), the condensation heat transfer was investigated on coated and uncoated horizontal smooth, standard finned and high performance tubes by experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-simulations. Measurements were carried out at a saturation temperature of 37 °C varying...
Flame spray synthesis of silica nanoparticles is characterized by a set of complementary optical techniques. By means of laser-sheet based Mie scattering imaging, 2D-chemiluminescence imaging and coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) local information on spatial droplet distribution, combustion zone, nucleation zone and temperature in the...
Continuous monitoring of respiratory and anesthetic gases during a surgery is of vital importance for the patient safety. Commonly the gas composition is determined by gas chromatography or a combination of IR-spectroscopy and electrochemical sensors. This study presents a concept for an optical sensor based on spontaneous Raman scattering which of...
This paper provides a brief overview of recent experimental studies regarding fuel property effects on the liquid jet disintegration and droplet breakup for gasoline direct injection. Microscopic and macroscopic spray visualizations were carried out in an injection chamber with a laser based planar Mie-imaging techniques. A dominant influence of th...
The determination of temperature distribution is an essential task when flames are characterized. We propose a new approach for flame thermometry based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) utilizing the temperature dependency of the breakdown threshold laser pulse energy. Calibration measurements are carried out in heated gas flows and po...
We show that the threshold of stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) from single micro-droplets increases with the bandwidth of the pulsed excitation laser radiation. SRS thresholds were experimentally investigated for two droplet sizes and two excitation bandwidths. For the narrowband excitation, a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser with a central waveleng...
The design of reciprocating pumps for the chemical industry requires a detailed knowledge of the apparent phenomena such as undesirable pipe pulsation and harmful cavitation. Since the detailed understanding of the entire mechanism is rather limited, emphasis will be put on the verification of a fluid-dynamic cavitation model for reciprocating posi...
Biofuels and alternative fuels are increasingly being blended with conventional gasoline fuel to decrease overall CO₂ emissions. A promising way to achieve this is the use of DISI (direct-injection spark-ignition) technology. However, depending on temperature, pressure, chemical composition and the spark timing, unwanted pre-ignition may occur. Des...
For the production of oxide nanoparticles at a commercial scale, flame spray processes are frequently used where mostly oxygen is fed to the flame if high combustion temperatures and thus small primary particle sizes are desired. To improve the understanding of these complex processes in situ, noninvasive optical measurement techniques were applied...
The established tracer laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) technique was newly adapted for the quantitative visualization of hydrogen inside an optically accessible hydrogen engine to investigate the processes of hydrogen-injection, mixture formation, ignition and combustion at motor-relevant operating points. Trimethylamine (TMA) has been seeded to t...
The reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emission is the main objective in development of modern IC-engines. A promising method to achieve this is the use of DI-SI engines with a spray-guided mixture formation. One advantage in efficiency of direct injection is the evaporation cooling of the fuel, which allows a higher compression. Although...
Monitoring of chemical reactors is key to optimizing yield and efficiency of chemical transformation processes. Aside from tracking pressure and temperature, the measurement of the chemical composition is essential in this context. We present an infrared difference spectroscopy approach for determining the reactant (cyclooctene) and product (cycloo...
Intermolecular interactions in mixtures of room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) and co-solvents define the properties of the solution. In this work, we study the mixing behavior in the binary systems [EMIM][EtSO4]/water, [EMIM][EtSO4]/methanol and [EMIM][EtSO4]/ethanol, which is governed by a change in the balance of molecular interactions presen...
Two different supercritical antisolvent (SAS) systems, one precipitating system and one crystallizing system, have been compared in their process behavior in dependence on the solute solubility. The SAS system YAc/DMSO/CO2, which is composed of yttrium acetate (YAc) as solute, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) as solvent and carbon dioxide (CO2) as antisolv...
The performance characteristics of a new CH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging system composed of a kHz-rate multimode-pumped optical parametric oscillator (OPO) and high-speed intensified CMOS camera are investigated in laminar and turbulent --air flames. A multi-channel Nd:YAG cluster that produces up to 225 mJ at 355 nm with multip...
We introduce a novel strategy to acquire gas phase temperatures by O-2 pure rotational CARS during flame spray pyrolysis (FSP) for silica production. RCARS benefits from a polarization filtering technique that is essential in particle and droplet environments. Particle containing regions were located by correlating laser-induced breakdown (LIB) in...
This paper describes a computer simulation of Diesel spray formation and the locations of self-ignition nuclei. The spray is divided into small elementary volumes in which the amounts of fuel and fuel vapours, air, mean, maximum and minimum fuel droplet diameter are calculated, as well as their number. The total air-fuel and air-fuel vapour ratios...
Thermophysical properties of the ionic liquid (IL) [EMIM][B(CN)4] (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetracyanoborate) were investigated both by conventional techniques and by surface light scattering (SLS) at atmospheric pressure. The density was measured between (283.15 and 363.15) K with a vibrating U-tube densimeter. An Abbe refractometer was used fo...
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was applied to characterize the flow field in a vertically oriented cold wall reactor, which is used for the catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Quantitative information about the radial and axial profiles of the velocity components has been obtained and on their basis, actual volu...
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) has been used for the measurement of several thermophysical properties of the refrigerant mixtures R417A (50 % by mass 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane—R134a, 46.6 % pentafluoroethane—R125, 3.4 % n-butane—R600) and R417B (79 % by mass R125, 18.25 % R134a, 2.75 % R600). Both refrigerant mixtures are designed for a replacement...
For the production of oxide nanoparticles at a commercial scale, flame spray processes are frequently used. To preserve the original behavior of the sensitive flame spray pyrolysis process in situ, the gas phase temperatures were measured with pure rotational CARS. An O2 pure rotational CARS setup was applied due to the lack of N2. The CARS techniq...
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an experimentally simple method capable of measuring elemental composition in a flame. Moreover, the breakdown threshold energy is temperature dependent. Hence, LIBS allows multiple parameter determination in combustion environments.
We present polarization-resolved shifted excitation Raman difference spectroscopy (pol-SERDS) and its application to monitor a bioreactor in which the microalga Porphyridium purpureum produces antiviral exopolysaccharides and pigments.
Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering technique combined with a single pulsed Nd3+:YAG laser is proposed and demonstrated for simultaneous measurement of CO2 and CH4. The technique can be used in combustion measurement consisting of gas mixture.
The influence of fuel composition on sprays was studied in an injection chamber at DISI conditions with
late injection timing. Fuels with high, mid and low volatility (n-hexane, n-heptane, n-decane) and a
3-component mixture with similar fuel properties like gasoline were investigated. The injection conditions
were chosen to model suppressed or...
We report hereby a temporally and spatially highly resolving optical measurement strategy, mainly based on linear Raman spectroscopy, with which it is possible to measure simultaneously and in situ the gas temperature and composition at different locations apart from the substrate surface as well as the structural quality of the growing carbon nano...
The reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emission is the main objective in development of modern IC-engines. A promising method to achieve this is the use of DI-SI engines with a spray-guided mixture formation. One advantage in efficiency of direct injection is the evaporation cooling of the fuel, which allows a higher compression. Although...
For the production of manufactured nanoparticles at a commercial scale flame processes are most frequently used. An important basis for understanding the complexity of this process is the characterization of the combustion process in dependence of the operation conditions. As minor changes of process parameters have huge impact on the product, inva...
The interaction of electric fields with flames yields two main effects, stabilization of the flames and reduction of pollutant emissions. Most of former studies were carried out using conventional measurement systems, e.g., exhaust gas analysis or mechanical probing, which did inevitably disturb not only the flame itself, but also the electric fiel...
We report on high-speed CH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging in turbulent diffusion flames using a multimode-pumped optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The OPO is pumped by the third-harmonic output of a multimode Nd:YAG cluster for direct signal excitation in the A-X (0,0) band of the CH radical. The lasing threshold, conversion ef...
a b s t r a c t A general description of the mechanisms governing the supercritical (sc) antisolvent (SAS) process is given. It simplifies the complex interactions of phase equilibria, jet fluid dynamics and mass transfer by two characteristic and competing times. One of them characterizes the time for the disappearance of the interface between the...
