Alan Bird

• University of London

Purpose: To describe a condition with the following features: chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CCSC), chorioretinal folds, scleral changes (including any of the following flattened or 'squared off' posterior pole, 'T sign', or thickened ocular coats), accompanied by a short axial length and hypermetropia in a series of 7 patients. Method...

Purpose To report the retinal phenotype in two patients simulating type 2 macular telangiectasis with new variants in CYP2U1 implicated in Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia type 56 (HSP 56). Methods Five members of a non-consanguineous family (parents and three male children) were investigated. All family members underwent a full ophthalmological evalu...

Quantitative autofluorescence (qAF8) level is a presumed surrogate marker of lipofuscin content in the retina. We investigated the changes in the qAF8 levels in non-neovascular AMD. In this prospective cohort study, Caucasians aged ≥50 years with varying severity of non-neovascular AMD in at least one eye and Snellen visual acuity ≥6/18 were recrui...

Purpose To develop a severity classification for macular telangiectasia type2 (MacTel) disease using multi-modal imaging Design An algorithm was used on data from a prospective natural history study of MacTel for classification development. Subjects A total of 1,733 participants enrolled in an international natural history study of MacTel. Metho...

The current Private Higher Education Institution (PHEI) landscape in South Africa is developing rapidly, with over ninety private tertiary institutions registered with the Council for Higher Education (CHE). However, stakeholder perceptions of these PHEIs are generally negative, primarily due to the negative perceptions of the qualification obtaine...

The current Private Higher Education Institution (PHEI) landscape in South Africa is developing at a rapid rate, with over ninety private tertiary institutions, registered with the Council for Higher Education (CHE). However, stakeholder perceptions of these PHEIs are generally negative, largely as a result of the negative perceptions of the qualif...

To evaluate the effect of aging, intra- and intersession repeatability and regional scotopic sensitivities in healthy and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) eyes. Intra- and intersession agreement and effect of age was measured in healthy individuals. The mean sensitivity (MS) and pointwise retinal sensitivities (PWS) within the central 24° wit...

Background Macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) is a rare, heritable and largely untreatable retinal disorder, often comorbid with diabetes. Genetic risk loci subtend retinal vascular calibre and glycine/serine/threonine metabolism genes. Serine deficiency may contribute to MacTel via neurotoxic deoxysphingolipid production; however, an independe...

To evaluate functional clinical endpoints and their structural correlations in AMD, with a focus on subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD). This prospective study enroled 50 participants (11 controls, 17 intermediate AMD (iAMD) with no SDD, 11 iAMD with SDD and 11 non-foveal atrophic AMD). Participants underwent best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), lo...

Background Macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) is a neurodegenerative disease resulting in photoreceptor loss. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) reveals outer retina-associated hyperreflectivity (ORaH) as part of this process. The purpose of this study was to describe the incidence and phenotypical variation of ORaH. Methods Different paramete...

Age-related macular disease (AMD) is a major cause of blindness and there is little treatment currently available by which the progress of the basic disorder can be modulated. Histological and clinical studies show that the major tissues involved are the outer retina, retinal pigment epithelium, Bruch's membrane and choroid. Because of a wide varia...

Purpose: To investigate the value of visual acuity and patient-perceived visual function test when subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD) are incorporated into the classification of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). A total of 50 participants were recruited into the study in these groups: healthy ageing (n = 11), intermediate AMD (iAMD) with no...

X-linked retinopathies represent a significant proportion of monogenic retinal disease. They include progressive and stationary conditions, with and without syndromic features. Many are X-linked recessive, but several exhibit a phenotype in female carriers, which can help establish diagnosis and yield insights into disease mechanisms. Affected carr...

Limited evidence suggests that the application of 670 nm of red light alters the course of aged decline. A previous report on 18 patients showed regression of drusen and improvement in visual functions in patients with intermediate age-related macular degeneration (AMD) by 12 months. We evaluated the functional and structural effects of applying 67...

Purpose Macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) is a rare, heritable and largely untreatable retinal disorder, often comorbid with diabetes. Genetic risk loci subtend retinal vascular calibre, and glycine/serine/threonine metabolism genes. Serine deficiency may contribute to MacTel via neurotoxic deoxysphingolipid production, however, an independent...

Purpose: To investigate the progression characteristics of ellipsoid zone (EZ) loss in eyes with macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) as reflected by area and linear measurements, and their relevance for visual acuity. Methods: Participants were selected from the MacTel Study cohort. Linear and area measurements of EZ loss were performed in Spect...

Purpose: To describe the defining features of incomplete retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and outer retinal atrophy (iRORA), a consensus term referring to the OCT-based anatomic changes often identified before the development of complete RPE and outer retinal atrophy (cRORA) in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We provide descriptive OCT and...

Purpose To investigate the progression characteristics of ellipsoid zone (EZ) loss in eyes with macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) as reflected by area and linear measurements, and their relevance for visual acuity. Methods Participants were selected from the MacTel Study cohort. Linear and area measurements of EZ loss were performed in Spectr...

Purpose: To test the effects of an encapsulated cell-based delivery of a neuroprotective agent, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) on progression of macular telangiectasia type 2, a neurodegenerative disease with no proven effective therapy. Design: Randomized sham-controlled clinical trial PARTICIPANTS: 99 study eyes of 67 eligible participants...

p>Purpose: To investigate systemic and ocular determinants of peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (pRNFLT) in the European population. Design: Cross-sectional meta-analysis. Participants: A total of 16 084 European adults from 8 cohort studies (mean age range, 56.9±12.3–82.1±4.2 years) of the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) consortium....

Purpose: To examine whether ultra-widefield (UWF) retinal imaging can identify biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and its progression. Methods: Images were taken using a UWF scanning laser ophthalmoscope (Optos P200C AF) to determine phenotypic variations in 59 patients with AD and 48 healthy controls at baseline (BL). All living participan...

Purpose: To investigate systemic and ocular determinants of peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (pRNFLT) in the European population. Design: Cross-sectional meta-analysis. Participants: A total of 16 084 European adults from 8 cohort studies (mean age range, 56.9±12.3-82.1±4.2 years) of the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) consorti...

The regional susceptibility of the retina to diseases has been well known by clinicians for many years. It is surprising that the implications of these observations have not spawned major research efforts to characterise the structural and functional attributes of the outer retina in different regions of a foveate retina. Without such an effort, th...

Purpose: To develop consensus terminology and criteria for defining atrophy based on OCT findings in the setting of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Design: Consensus meeting. Participants: Panel of retina specialists, image reading center experts, retinal histologists, and optics engineers. Methods: As part of the Classification of A...

Purpose: Pigment in the midretina is a characteristic sign in Type 2 idiopathic macular telangiectasia (MacTel) and is considered to characterize the late stage of the disease. Our aim was to investigate its incidence, and relationship with risk factors for MacTel, including outer retinal vascularization and subretinal neovascular proliferation (S...

Purpose: To investigate the influence of hormone therapy with tamoxifen or estrogens on morphological changes in macular telangiectasia (MacTel) type 2 patients as revealed clinically in multiple imaging modalities. Methods: Patients with a history of tamoxifen or estrogen use were selected from the cohort of the MacTel Study. A race-, age- and...

Purpose: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a frequent, complex disorder in elderly of European ancestry. Risk profiles and treatment options have changed considerably over the years, which may have affected disease prevalence and outcome. We determined the prevalence of early and late AMD in Europe from 1990 to 2013 using the European Eye...

Purpose: Macular telangiectasia Type 2 (MacTel) is a bilateral, progressive, potentially blinding retinal disease characterized by vascular and neurodegenerative signs, including an increased parafoveal reflectivity to blue light. Our aim was to investigate the relationship of this sign with other signs of macular telangiectasia Type 2 in multiple...

Purpose: To compare ellipsoid zone (EZ) loss and functional loss in macular telangiectasia (MacTel) type 2 longitudinally. Methods: Prospective natural history study. Ellipsoid zone loss was measured in en-face images created from spectral domain optical coherence tomography. Functional loss was assessed by best-corrected visual acuity and micro...

Purpose: Macular telangiectasia Type 2 is a bilateral, progressive, potentially blinding retinal disease characterized by both vascular and neurodegenerative signs. Both the area of the break in the ellipsoid zone seen in "en face" optical coherence tomographic (OCT) images and microperimetric focal retinal sensitivity loss have been proposed as p...

Purpose: To characterize scotomas in macular telangiectasia Type 2 (MacTel). Methods: Five of the 27 centers performed microperimetry as part of the MacTel Natural History Observation Study. Data were analyzed in the Moorfields Eye Hospital Reading Centre. The number of stimuli under a threshold of 12, 10, 8, and <0 dB were counted (thresholding...

Purpose: To evaluate progression of macular telangiectasia Type 2 lesions and their correlation with visual acuity. Methods: An international multicenter prospective study with annual examinations including best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography images graded centrally....

Purpose: To summarize the results of 2 consensus meetings (Classification of Atrophy Meeting [CAM]) on conventional and advanced imaging modalities used to detect and quantify atrophy due to late-stage non-neovascular and neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and to provide recommendations on the use of these modalities in natural his...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a frequent, complex disorder in elderly of European ancestry. Risk profiles and treatment options have changed considerably over the years, which may have affected disease prevalence and outcome. We determined the prevalence of early and late AMD in Europe from 1990 to 2013 using the European Eye Epidemiolo...

This case report describes a patient with a retinal vascular complex that most likely represents a developmental abnormality of the retinal vasculature, consistent with the role of von Hippel-Lindau disease in retinal vascular development. Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease is a rare, dominantly inherited, multisystem cancer syndrome.1 The most common...

Drusen are discussed frequently in the context of their association with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Some types may, however, be regarded as a normal consequence of ageing; others may be observed in young age groups. They also occur in a number of inherited disorders and some systemic conditions. Whilst drusen are classically located ex...

Drusen have been considered the clinical hallmark of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Reticular pseudodrusen (RPD), although first described about twenty-five years ago, have only been recently recognised as an additional clinical phenotype of AMD with distinct characteristics on multimodal imaging and significant impact on visual function....

The condition now known as AZOOR was probably reported initially by neuro-ophthalmologists when patients were recognized as having a big blind spot without disc swelling or any other visible retinal abnormalities. The field loss was reported to be persistent over many months. It was then recognized that in some patients, the visual field loss was p...

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Recent findings indicate that immunological factors, in particular a possible autoimmune response, are involved in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). To reveal an autoantibody profile for AMD and identify biomarkers for progression of this disease, we performed an antigen microarray analysis of serum samples from patients w...

Macular telangiectasia type 2 is a bilateral disease with characteristic alterations of the macular capillary network and neural atrophy. Vascular and neurodegenerative hypotheses have been proposed to explain these clinical findings, but many questions regarding the pathogenesis remain. We report the case of a 69-year-old woman with macular telang...

To investigate progressive vision loss in patients with macular telangiectasia (MacTel) type 2 and to compare the ability to detect functional decline between microperimetry and visual acuity testing. Change of cumulative defect size (number of test points with absolute scotoma) on microperimetry testing and change in distance best-corrected visual...

Our understanding of the relevance of peripheral retinal abnormalities to disease in general and in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in particular is limited by the lack of detailed peripheral imaging studies. The purpose of this study was to develop image grading protocols suited to ultra-widefield imaging (UWFI) in an aged population. A cro...

Significance Proteins and lipids accumulating in deposits external to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) represent a barrier to metabolic exchange between the retina and the choroidal capillaries. With time, these deposits can lead to age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the most common cause of blindness in the elderly in the developed world....

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of intraocular delivery of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) using an encapsulated cell implant for the treatment of macular telangiectasia type 2. An open-labeled safety trial conducted in 2 centers enrolling 7 participants with macular telangiectasia type 2. The participant's more severely affected eye (wo...

Macular telangiectasia Type 2 is a bilateral, progressive potentially blinding retinal disease characterized by both vascular and neurodegenerative signs that have been documented using different imaging techniques. The correlation between macular telangiectasia Type 2 signs from various imaging modalities is unknown. Our aim was to investigate the...

The aim of this study was to determine whether typical abnormalities seen on autofluorescence (AF) imaging in patients with macular telangiectasia (MacTel) type 2 are correlated with visual acuity at presentation and with progression of visual loss over a 2-year follow-up period. A subgroup of 218 patients (413 eyes) enrolled in the MacTel study th...

Importance Geographic atrophy (GA) is the major cause of blind registration in Western communities, although, with few exceptions, it is less common than choroidal neovascular disease. The variation of phenotype implies that age-related macular degeneration (AMD) does not follow the same course from one case to another and that phenotyping may be...

Purpose: To estimate the conversion factors to transpose macular thickness measurements on time-domain (TD) to various spectral-domain (SD) optical coherence tomography (OCT) machines in patients with macular telangiectasia type 2a (MacTel). Procedures: Macular scans on TD- and SD-OCT were performed on patients at the same visit. The retinal thickn...

Purpose An analysis was performed with a view of determining potential associations between typical patterns seen on autofluorescence (AF) imaging in patients with Macular Telangiectesia (MacTel) type 2 and distance visual acuity at presentation as well as visual change over a 2‐year follow‐up period, thus ascribing predictive value to AF patterns...

Purpose: To determine whether the prevalences of various systemic conditions in participants of the MacTel Project Natural History Observation (NHO) Study differ from the corresponding prevalences in the general population. Methods: This report compares the prevalence of systemic disease in participants of the NHO Study with age- and sex-matched...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) involves a variety of phenotypic changes at the posterior pole. These phenotypic fi ndings change dynamically over time, which is not always evident from a single funduscopy. Earlystage disease is characterized by drusen and/or irregular focal hypo- or hyperpigmentations.

The basal membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is limited by Bruch’s membrane and the adjacent layer of the choroid, which is rich in capillaries. At the apical side the microvilli of the RPE are in close contact to the photoreceptor outer segment. There is a complicated metabolic exchange between the retina and choroid with the RPE as...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a common cause of blindness in older individuals. To accelerate the understanding of AMD biology and help design new therapies, we executed a collaborative genome-wide association study, including >17,100 advanced AMD cases and >60,000 controls of European and Asian ancestry. We identified 19 loci associate...

Objective: To develop a clinical classification system for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Design: Evidence-based investigation, using a modified Delphi process. Participants: Twenty-six AMD experts, 1 neuro-ophthalmologist, 2 committee chairmen, and 1 methodologist. Methods: Each committee member completed an online assessment of st...

Age-related macular degeneration is the most common cause for the loss of central vision beyond the age of 50 in industrial nations. Triplication of the number of affected patients is expected over the next 25 years. Especially over the last years the standard of knowledge regarding etiology, risk factors, diagnostics and therapy of this retina ill...

Macular telangiectasia type 2 is a bilateral disease of unknown cause with characteristic alterations of the macular capillary network and neurosensory atrophy. Its prevalence may be underestimated and has recently been shown to be as high as 0.1% in persons 40 years and older. Biomicroscopy may show reduced retinal transparency, crystalline deposi...

Purpose: To document the progression of a break in the photoreceptor inner segment/outer segment (IS/OS) junction layer and its functional correlates over time in the natural history of type 2 idiopathic macular telangiectasia (type 2 MacTel). Methods: Patients with at least 1 year of follow-up were selected from the MacTel Study. En face images...

Macular Telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) is a relatively rare macular disease of adult onset presenting with distortions in the visual field and leading to progressive loss of visual acuity. For the purpose of a gene mapping study, several pedigrees were ascertained with multiple affected family members. Seventeen families with a total of 71 individu...

Purpose: We investigated abnormalities of the photoreceptor inner/outer segment (IS/OS) junction layer viewed "en face" and their functional correlates in type 2 idiopathic macular telangiectasia (type 2 MacTel). Methods: Segmentation and "en face" imaging of the IS/OS lines in spectral domain optical coherence tomographic (SD-OCT) volumes were...

Purpose: To evaluate the spatial distribution and total amount of macular pigment (MP) in patients with idiopathic macular telangiectasia type 2 (MacTel) compared to healthy subjects. Methods: Totals of 53 MacTel patients and 38 normal subjects underwent macular pigment optical density (MPOD) measurement using a 2-wavelength autofluorescence (2-...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of visual loss in Western populations. Susceptibility is influenced by age, environmental and genetic factors. Known genetic risk loci do not account for all the heritability. We therefore carried out a genome-wide association study of AMD in the UK population with 893 cases of advanced AMD...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible blindness in industrial counties. Recent findings indicate that the autoimmunity is involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. However, there is no autoantibody biomarker applied in a clinical setting for diagnosis and prognosis of AMD. In order to reveal retinal antigens...

Type 2 idiopathic macular telangiectasia (MacTel) is a progressive retinal disease associated with a slow deterioration of visual acuity, starting in the fifth to seventh decades of life. The etiology and pathogenesis of the disease are little known, and no effective therapy is available. We aimed to estimate the prevalence and describe the phenoty...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible blindness in industrial counties. Its pathogenesis is at least partially mediated by immunological factors, including a possible autoimmune response. To date, only a few antibodies have been identified in sera from patients with AMD. In order to reveal an autoantibody profi...

Variation in the complement factor H gene (CFH) is associated with risk of late age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Previous studies have been case-control studies in populations of European ancestry with little differentiation in AMD subtype, and insufficient power to confirm or refute effect modification by smoking. To precisely quantify the...

Background: variation in the complement factor H gene (CFH) is associated with risk of late age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Previous studies have been case–control studies in populations of European ancestry with little differentiation in AMD subtype, and insufficient power to confirm or refute effect modification by smoking. Methods: to pr...

Variation in the complement factor H gene (CFH) is associated with risk of late age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Previous studies have been case-control studies in populations of European ancestry with little differentiation in AMD subtype, and insufficient power to confirm or refute effect modification by smoking. METHODS: To precisely quan...

To characterize the phenotype and investigate the associations of intraretinal crystalline deposits in a large cohort with type 2 idiopathic macular telangiectasia (MacTel). Case-control study. Patients with and without retinal crystals from the Macular Telangiectasia Project, an international multicenter prospective study of type 2 MacTel. Grading...

This study reports electroretinogram (ERG) data in a septuagenarian population. Fifty healthy adults without diabetes or dementia aged 70-79 years underwent standardised electrophysiological testing incorporating current ISCEV Standards as baseline assessment for the OPAL (Older People And n-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids) study. These da...

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) tears may develop as a complication after anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) treatment for pigment epithelial detachments (PEDs) in exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This retrospective study analyses best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and foveal involvement after RPE tears that are assoc...

To document the evolution and functional and structural significance of parafoveal rings of high-density fundus autofluorescence (AF) in patients with retinitis pigmentosa and preserved visual acuity. Fifty-two patients with nonsyndromic retinitis pigmentosa or Usher syndrome, who had a parafoveal ring of high-density AF and a visual acuity of 20/3...

Macular degeneration is known to be a bilateral disease. This study set out to determine the symmetry of phenotype between eyes of patients with bilateral early AMD (or drusen) or late-stage AMD. This may be important information when considering the likelihood of anti-VEGF treatment. This prospective, observational, cross-sectional study graded th...

Die geographische Atrophie (GA) stellte die atrophische Spätform der trockenen AMD dar. Sie imponiert funduskopisch am Augenhintergrund als scharf demarkierte, depigmentierte Areale. Innerhalb von Atrophiearealen werden typischerweise choroidale Gefäße sichtbar (◚ Abb. 8.1).

Der Verlust der Lesefähigkeit wird von Patienten mit AMD als wesentlichste Beeinträchtigung erlebt. Die Lesefähigkeit ist von großer Bedeutung für eine selbständige Lebensführung und die allgemeine Lebensqualität. Der Erhalt der Lesefähigkeit ist deshalb ein Schwerpunkt der Rehabilitation der Patienten mit AMD. Wegen der Zunahme der AMD wird der Be...

Die choroidale Neovaskularisation (CNV) präsentiert sich mit verschiedenen visuellen Symptomen und Befunden, die Hinweise auf die richtige Diagnose geben können [1–3]. Die physische Invasion von Blutgefäßen und das assoziierte zelluläre Infiltrat deformieren das retinale Gewebe. Assoziierte Leckage, Blutungen und schließlich Narbenbildung können au...

Die altersabhängige Makuladegeneration (AMD) ist die Hauptursache für schweren, irreversiblen Sehverlust und Erblindung im rechtlichen Sinn in den meisten westlichen Ländern eingeschlossen Europa [1], Nordamerika [2–4], Australien [5, 6] und Teilen von Asien [7].

Altern wurde definiert als »eine mit der Zeit stetig zunehmende Reihe von Veränderungen, die im fortgeschrittenen Alter mit immer höherer Krankheitsanfälligkeit und Tod einhergehen bzw. für sie verantwortlich sind« [1]. Auch das Auge macht dabei keine Ausnahme; Katarakt und Netzhautdegeneration sind häufige Begleiterscheinungen des Alterns [2]. Vor...

Die zunehmenden Möglichkeiten der Fundusbildgebung waren eine wichtige Voraussetzung für die Forschungsfortschritte bei Netzhauterkrankungen. Die monochromatische und die Farbphotographie boten Lichtbildaufnahmen des Augenhintergrundes. Die Einführung der Fluoreszein-Angiographie ermöglichte es Ophthalmologen, die vaskuläre Anatomie und Physiologie...

Die altersabhängige Makuladegeneration (AMD) ist in den Industriestaaten der Hauptgrund irreversibler Erblindung bei Menschen über 60 Jahren [1]. Schätzungsweise etwa 30% der Erwachsenen über 75 Jahren weisen Zeichen einer AMD auf, von denen etwa 10% ein fortgeschrittenes oder spätes Stadium der Erkrankung zeigen [2]. Die große Mehrheit der AMD-Pat...

»Sehschädigung« wird allgemein als der übergeordnete Begriff für jede Beeinträchtigung des visuellen Systems nach bestmöglicher Korrektur mit Brillengläsern oder Kontaktlinsen verstanden. Der Grad einer Sehschädigung ist abhängig von der Ursache und dem Sitz der Augenerkrankung. Er wird primär durch das Ausmaß der Sehschärfeminderung für die Ferne...

Die altersbedingte Makuladegeneration (AMD) ist die häufigste Erblindungsursache von Menschen über 50 Jahren in der westlichen Welt [1–3]. Die häufigste Ursache für einen gravierenden Verlust der Sehkraft bei AMD ist wiederum die Entstehung einer choroidalen Neovaskularisation (CNV), also die Ausbildung einer sog. exsudativen AMD (Synonyme: feuchte...

Dieses Kapitel ist eine Aktualisierung zum Thema »Epidemiologie der altersabhängigen Makuladegeneration« (AMD) und erläutert die seit der letzten Auflage von 2003 neugewonnenen Erkenntnisse. Ziel des Kapitels ist es, eine Übersicht der aktuellen epidemiologischen Literatur bei AMD zu geben sowie über Diagnose, Häufigkeit, genetische und umweltbedin...

Die Angiogenese ist ein physiologischer und lebensnotwendiger Prozess. Unter bestimmten Umständen kann dieser aber auch Ausdruck krankhafter Mechanismen sein. Man spricht dann von pathologischen Neovaskularisationen. Diese können im Rahmen neoplastischer Prozesse auftreten. In den meisten Fällen handelt es sich aber um ein reaktives Ereignis auf ei...

Die altersabhängige Makuladegeneration (AMD) ist eine komplexe Erkrankung mit genetischen, umweltbedingten und demographischen Risikofaktoren (► Kap. 3). In den vergangenen Jahren konnte der Nachweis geführt werden, dass entzündliche Prozesse einschließlich einer Dysregulation des Komplementsystems eine wesentliche Rolle bei der Pathogenese der AMD...