Agata Kleczkowska

Polish Academy of Sciences | PAN · Institute of Law Studies

The term ‘hybrid warfare’ describes not only actions which combine different techniques and tools of combat, but also denotes the involvement of States and non-State actors (NSAs) in hostile activities. The aim of the chapter is to review the international legal norms applicable to NSAs. The chapter is divided into two parts: the first part discuss...

Truizmem jest powiedzieć, że broń autonomiczna, nawet korzystająca z najbardziej zaawansowanej formy sztucznej inteligencji, nie poniesie odpowiedzialności za naruszenia prawa międzynarodowego będące skutkiem jej użycia. Odpowiedzialność za takie naruszenia prawa międzynarodowego mogą z kolei ponieść państwa lub osoby fizyczne. Wielu autorów zwraca...

After 24 February 2022, the international community expressed unprecedented solidarity with Ukraine and condemnation for Russia. With one exception however: the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) did nothing to address the flagrant violations of international law committed by Russia, continuing its pattern of inaction since 2014. In its capacit...

Digest Contents: Europe - Russia-Ukraine: Russian aggression against Ukraine - Belarus: Security guarantees from Russia Africa - Burkina Faso: France withdraws from Burkina Faso - Benin: Benin to receive military assistance from Rwanda to protect its borders - Democratic Republic of the Congo: Tensions with Rwanda and troop deployments by the...

Even now, when there is still no end in sight for the armed conflict in Ukraine, the first initiatives aimed at planning the rebuilding of this State are being discussed. One of the key aspects which should be taken into account is the state of the natural environment in Ukraine once the armed conflict is over. While one could rightly claim that th...

This article focuses on the application of autonomous weapons (AWs) in defensive systems and, consequently, assesses the conditions of the legality of employing such weapons from the perspective of the right to self-defence. How far may humans exert control over AWs? Are there any legal constraints in using AWs for the purpose of self-defence? How...

The prohibition of threats of force, although included in Article 2 of the United Nations (UN) Charter, among the principles upon which the United Nations is built, often plays a secondary role in the maintenance of international peace and security. The aim of the present paper is to verify how violations of the prohibition of threats of force infl...

The aim of this article is to analyse the European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter: the Court) decision on admissibility in the Ukraine v. Russia (re Crimea) case from the perspective of the Court's comments on the status of Crimea and the legality of Russia's actions. The Court itself observed that it cannot make such findings; nevertheless, di...

Celem artykułu jest analiza Memorandum w sprawie gwarancji bezpieczeństwa w związku z przystąpieniem Ukrainy do Układu o nierozprzestrzenianiu broni jądrowej zawartego w 1994 r. między Ukrainą, Rosją, USA i Wielką Brytanią, nazywanego również Memorandum Budapesztańskim. Miało ono zagwarantować bezpieczeństwo Ukrainie w zamian za przekazanie Rosji z...

Celem niniejszego artykułu jest zbadanie, czy sankcje ustanawiane przez Radę Bezpieczeństwa ONZ (RB ONZ) wiążą nie tylko państwa członkowskie ONZ, ale również państwa, które nie są członkami Organizacji. Artykuł opiera się na tezie, że w Karcie NZ (KNZ) nie ma podstaw prawnych, które pozwalałyby RB ONZ na uchwalanie sankcji wobec państw nieczłonkow...

The aim of this paper is to analyse four domains of 'grey zones' in public international law exploited by Russia's activities during the conflict in Ukraine-acknowledgement of Russia's involvement in the conflict; the use of force against Ukraine; the application of the right to self-determination; and passportisation carried out in Donbass. As thi...

W lutym 2019 r. Międzynarodowy Trybunał Sprawiedliwości (MTS) wydał opinię doradczą dotyczącą prawnych konsekwencji oddzielenia archipelagu Czagos od Mauritiusa w 1965 r. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest przeanalizowanie metodologii, za pomocą której MTS dokonał identyfikacji norm międzynarodowego prawa zwyczajowego odnoszących się do samostanowieni...

The aim of the article is to examine the legal position presented by the UK after the 2018 airstrikes in Syria, both from the perspective of the legality of humanitarian intervention as well as the criteria employed with regard to a humanitarian intervention in the doctrine of international law. The thesis underlying this paper is that humanitarian...

The aim of this article is to explore whether ANSAs as such may bear direct responsibility for their violations of international law. It undertakes the task of both reconstructing the current state of law when it comes to the responsibility of ANSAs, as well as submitting a proposal for a model of direct responsibility of ANSAs. Section II compares...

Treaties authorising military assistance serve as an argument for the legality of military presence, deter enemies, prove political integration of states, or support a fragile regime. A treaty should explicitly allow for the sending of troops. In addition, ad hoc consent is needed unless military assistance complies with jus ad bellum. The lack of...

The aim of this article is to discuss the obligation of non-recognition arising out of the illegal use of force by Russia against Ukraine and the subsequent annexation of Crimea. The thesis underlying the article is that these events amounted to a gross violation of international law, and consequently, States are under an obligation not to recogniz...

The unwritten nature of customary international law (CIL) enables it to remain flexible and easily adaptable to changes in States practice and opinio juris, but at the same time may be the source of substantial uncertainties when it comes to the formation, identification and development of customary norms. To investigate this issue, this paper exam...

Celem artykułu jest określenie statusu zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych w prawie międzynarodowym z perspektywy praw człowieka. Artykuł ten ma odpowiedzieć na pytanie czy zbrojni aktorzy niepaństwowi są związani prawami człowieka oraz jaka byłaby podstawa prawna tych obowiązków, ich zakres i konsekwencje wynikające z ich naruszenia. Teza, na której...

This paper suggests that the crime of terrorism requires the establishment of an international organ to prosecute the perpetrators of the crime and there is a need to enable the prosecution of the crime of terrorism as a specific new type of international crime. In advancing this thesis, the paper is divided into three parts. The first part briefly...

The paper explores the problem of the formation of the '(quasi-) customary law' , as a source of law created by, or contributed to by armed non-state actors (ANSAs). It argues that, despite some views presented in the doctrine of international law, claims of a quasi-customary international law are without foundation in the current state of internat...

This article advances the thesis that there is no threshold of the use of force. i.e. no level of the use of force which decides whether and which forcible actions undertaken by States are prohibited. The examples of actions discussed in the doctrine of law which supposedly would be ‘below’ such a threshold in fact either are regulated by other pri...

On 4 April 2017, the Syrian regime used chemical weapons against the civilian population in Syria. In response, the US conducted a strike against the Syrian military base. The US did not provide any legal justification for that action, but given President Donald Trump's statement issued after the attack, one may assume that the US considered, not o...

This chapter highlights the distinctiveness of international law as applied and formed by the Latin American States with regard to the security issues. Following the concept pursued in this book, the chapter will be divided into four parts. The first one, ideas, discusses the principles of non-intervention and commitment to democracy as the fundame...

The Polish Supreme Court, in its decision dated October 14, 2015, decided that the deliberate deprivation of a person of his or her liberty may – upon the fulfilment of specific requirements – be recognized as a crime against humanity, regardless of how long the deprivation lasted. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court arrived to this conclusion without...

Problematyka państwowości Palestyny pozostaje jednym z najbardziej kontrowersyjnych zagadnień współczesnego prawa międzynarodowego i stosunków międzynarodowych. Mimo stanowiska prezentowanego w rezolucjach Zgromadzenia Ogólnego ONZ, a także przystąpienia Palestyny do wielu ważnych umów międzynarodowych, na prawach takich samych jak powszechnie uzna...

In its Judgment of 17 February 2016, the Polish Supreme Court adjudicated the case of Polish soldiers accused of crimes committed in the village of Nangar Khel in Afghanistan in 2007. Ultimately, the Supreme Court found that Polish soldiers were guilty of, inter alia, breach of Article 318 of the Polish Penal Code, which stipulates that a soldier c...

W związku ze zjawiskiem wielokulturowości coraz większe znaczenie zyskuje koncepcja cultural defence, czyli uwzględniania przez sąd kulturowych korzeni oskarżonego, które miały wpływ na popełnione przestępstwo. Debata, która toczy się nad takimi „kulturowymi argumentami” na sali sądowej, dotyka problemów zarówno dogmatycznych, jak i praktycznych. S...