Adam m Kaye

• PHARM.D.
• Professor at University of the Pacific

Delirium is an acute state of impaired awareness and cognition with significant implications for patient outcomes, particularly in the elderly. Its clinical features include fluctuating consciousness, disorientation, hallucinations, agitation, psychomotor changes, and speech disturbances. While delirium has a broad differential diagnosis—including...

Vitamin E, primarily in its active form α-tocopherol, is a well-known antioxidant that protects cells from oxidative stress and free radical damage. It plays an essential role in maintaining cellular integrity and supporting immune function, making Vitamin E a widely popular and easily accessible dietary supplement for overall health and wellness....

Endoscopic botulinum toxin injections (EBTI) are used to treat refractory gastroparesis in various patient populations, but their use still needs to be standardized. The PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were searched for studies focusing on using endoscopic, intrapyloric botulinum toxin injections to treat refractory gastroparesis. Re...

Emesis (e.g., vomiting and nausea) can be a nebulous condition to treat, as it has many and highly varied etiologies. Understanding the underlying causes of emesis is crucial in selecting the appropriate antiemetic therapy. At present, there are a plethora of medications on the market to treat emesis, known as antiemetics. For the healthcare profes...

Tacrolimus and mycophenolate are important immunosuppressive agents used to prevent organ rejection in post-transplant patients. While highly effective, their use is associated with significant toxicity, requiring careful management. Tacrolimus, a calcineurin inhibitor, is linked to nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, metabolic disturbances such as diab...

Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are chronic diseases with increasing prevalence, underscoring the urgent need for effective treatment and management strategies. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) have emerged as an essential class of drugs for managing both obesity and T2DM, offering additional benefits for cardiovasc...

With the number of surgical procedures requiring sedation increasing every year, most hospitals and other facilities now have a procedural (moderate/deep) sedation program. The third edition of this popular handbook provides concise, practical, and evidence-based guidance on safe and effective procedural sedation. Featuring contributions from natio...

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that more commonly affects African American people, although it is seen in people of all racial backgrounds. This condition is characterized by a dysregulated immune response resulting in widespread inflammation. Clinical manifestations caused by this inflammation include arthritis, anemia...

This narrative review examines the role of the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine in global tuberculosis (TB) control efforts, with particular emphasis on the differences in vaccination policies between countries, such as the US, where routine BCG administration is not practiced. A significant complication of the BCG vaccine is false positive r...

The term "kratom" refers to a plant species formally known as Mitragyna speciosa. Kratom is composed of over 40 alkaloids, a type of organic compound that contains nitrogen. These compounds work primarily via binding to opioid receptors expressed on neurons, where they stimulate signal transduction mechanisms involving the activation of G proteins....

Background: Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) has been used for over 50 years to treat chronic pain by delivering electrical pulses through small electrodes placed near targeted peripheral nerves those outside the brain and spinal cord. Early PNS systems often required invasive neurosurgical procedures. However, since 2015, the Food and Drug Admi...

It is estimated that over 16 million people are living with opioid use disorder (OUD) worldwide, with 2.1 million people in the United States. Opioid addiction is theorized to be associated with strong dopaminergic response to opioid receptor stimulations that contributes to reward-seeking behaviors and individuals' experiences with opioids. Methad...

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive autoimmune disease modulated by autoantibodies that inflame and destroy the myelin sheath encasing neuronal axons, impairing proper axonal conduction and function. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists have been demonstrated to exert antiinflammatory and neuroprotective effects, making t...

Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) is a common and often misinterpreted clinical entity responsible for various symptoms affecting the upper aerodigestive tract. This narrative literature review aims to review the pathophysiology, symptoms, and management of LPR, emphasizing the emerging understanding of gastric content reflux in aerodigestive tissue i...

Pyogenic (septic) arthritis is a severe joint infection characterized by the invasion of microorganisms into the synovium, causing inflammation and joint destruction. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of pyogenic arthritis, focusing on etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management strategies. This re...

Background: The frequency of performance of interventional techniques in chronic pain patients receiving anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy continues to increase. Understanding the importance of continuing chronic anticoagulant therapy, the need for interventional techniques, and determining the duration and discontinuation or temporary suspen...

Hypertension is attributable long-term to various negative health outcomes, including atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and, more broadly, to cardiovascular events such as congestive heart disease, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and stroke. Effective hypertension treatment is essential to lower the risk of these outcomes. Treatment of h...

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has increased over the last decade. In this regard, many emerging therapies have been described as ASD therapies. Although ASD does not have a cure, there are several management options available that can help reduce symptom severity. ASD is highly variable and, therefore, standard treatment protocol...

Worldwide, hypertension is the leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death. An estimated 122 million people, per the American Heart Association in 2023, have been diagnosed with this common condition. It is generally agreed that the primary goal in the treatment of hypertension is to reduce overall blood pressure to below 140/90 mmHg,...

Tuberculosis remains one of the most significant bacterial infections plaguing the medical community worldwide. The bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis retains the ability to manifest as an active infection, latent infection, miliary infection, or reactivation of latent infections in times of immunosuppression. Therefore, the medication regimen to...

Rabies, a millennia-old viral infection transmitted through animal bites, poses a lethal threat to humans, with a historic fatality rate of 100% if left untreated. Louis Pasteur's introduction of the rabies vaccine in 1885 marked a turning point in the battle against rabies, preventing numerous cases. The purpose of this paper is to review the hist...

Managing antithrombotic and antiplatelet therapy is one of the common issues while performing interventional techniques to balance the bleeding risk and perioperative risk of thrombosis. There are myriad procedural guidelines on managing anticoagulant and antithrombotic therapy, even though most are based on evidence on retrospective studies and ca...

Etizolam is a thienodiazepine derivative which produces an anxiolytic effect similar to benzodiazepines such as alprazolam (Xanax). Like classic benzodiazepines, etizolam has a high affinity towards the GABAA receptor, and allosterically potentiates the effects of GABA resulting in neuronal hyperpolarization related to chloride influx. When taken i...

Chronic pain, a complex and debilitating condition, involves intricate interactions between central and peripheral inflammatory processes. Cytokines, specifically tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukins (IL), are key mediators in the initiation and maintenance of chronic pain states. Sensory neurons expressing receptors for cytokines like TNF,...

Managing antithrombotic and antiplatelet therapy is one of the common issues while performing interventional techniques in regenerative medicine to balance the bleeding risk and perioperative risk of thrombosis. There are myriad procedural guidelines on managing anticoagulant and antithrombotic therapy, even though most are based on evidence on ret...

Multiple sclerosis is the most common autoimmune disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS) worldwide. Multiple sclerosis involves inflammatory demyelination of nerve fibers in the CNS, often presenting with recurrent episodes of focal sensory or motor deficits associated with the region of the CNS affected. The prevalence of this disease h...

Delirium tremens (DT) is a severe condition resulting from alcohol withdrawal. This review highlights the challenges in diagnosing and managing DT and emphasizes the importance of early recognition and intervention to prevent complications and ensure optimal patient outcomes. The discussion of the pathophysiology of DT, focusing on the neurochemica...

Chronic pruritus is defined as an itch lasting greater than six weeks. It can manifest from a wide variety of etiologies, as many different substances can act as pruritogens, such as steroids, histamine, progesterone, endogenous opioids, and serotonin. In the setting of cholestatic liver disease, increased bile acids play a major role in chronic pr...

Purpose of Review The opioid epidemic has been responsible for significant morbidity and mortality in the USA and worldwide. As a result, it is essential to recognize the threat these potent drugs can cause when illicitly used. Specifically, introducing fentanyl as a drug adulterant has been shown to impact overdose rates drastically. In this regar...

Purpose of review: This is a comprehensive review of the literature regarding Lemborexant for the treatment of insomnia. It covers the background and management of insomnia and then reviews the body of existing evidence evaluating the use of Lemborexant for this purpose. Recent findings: Insomnia leads to significant decreased in quality of life...

Purpose of review: This is a comprehensive review of the literature regarding the use of Solriamfetol for excessive daytime sleepiness. It covers the background and current therapeutic approaches to treating excessive daytime sleepiness, the management of common comorbidities, and the existing evidence investigating the use of Solriamfetol for thi...

Fluoroquinolones, a popular antibiotic class that inhibits nucleic acid synthesis of bacteria by disrupting the activity of the enzyme’s topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase, are used to treat bacterial infections. However, the widespread use of these drugs has allowed for the development of microbial resistance in recent years. Quinolones also have man...

Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) is a severe and potentially debilitating skin reaction frequently related to medication use. Allopurinol and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are commonly prescribed medications for prevalent health conditions worldwide, and their interaction associated with SJS warrants further investigation. A comprehe...

Teratogenic agents have been shown to have drastic and detrimental effects on fetuses if exposed to the agent during uterine life. The most sensitive time for a developing fetus is during the first trimester, and teratogenic exposure during this time can lead to severe deformities in the fetus. The Food and Drug Administration has categorized terat...

Background: Opioid prescribing in the United States is decreasing, however, the opioid epidemic is continuing at an uncontrollable rate. Available data show a significant number of opioid deaths, primarily associated with illicit fentanyl use. It is interesting to also note that the data show no clear correlation between opioid prescribing (either...

Acromegaly is a condition most commonly diagnosed in the fifth decade of life and has numerous treatment options. In this regard, Mycapssa® is the first FDA-approved oral octreotide capsule for treating acromegaly, combining the efficacy of the somatostatin receptor ligand, octreotide, with the ease of a twice-daily oral capsule. Where surgical tre...

Purpose of Review Regardless of the etiology, if pain persists chronically, it can detrimentally impact multiple aspects of a patient’s well-being. Both physical and psychological effects are significant in many chronic pain patients. In this regard, psychological consequences can alter a patient’s quality of life, functionality, and social functio...

Lyme disease and its treatment implications have become an ever-increasing area of concern within the United States related to the markedly increased prevalence of infection within the last two decades. The presentation, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of Lyme disease have been well studied, and thus treatments for this disease are widely availab...

Tianeptine is an antidepressant drug approved for the treatment of major depressive disorder in countries other than the US. It is classified as an atypical tricyclic antidepressant and has shown potential benefits in addressing anxiety and irritable bowel disease. However, it is important to note that tianeptine is not approved for any use by the...

Purpose of Review Postoperative pain (POP) is among the most unpleasant experiences that patients face after surgery. Interest in and use of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists for the management of POP has increased over the years with ketamine being the most popular drug of this class. Recent Findings Several randomized controlled t...

Since their approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1989, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have become one of the most highly utilized drugs in the United States, assuming a position as one of the top 10 most prescribed medications in the country. The purpose of PPIs is to limit the amount of gastric acid secreted by the parietal cells v...

Purpose of Review The tissue damage and trauma associated with surgery almost always result in acute postoperative pain. The intensity of postoperative pain can range from mild to severe. Naltrexone is suitable for patients who do not wish to be on an agonist treatment such as methadone or buprenorphine. However, naltrexone has been shown to compli...

Purpose of Review Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic disorder in which a person loses control over the use of opioids, develops a compulsive behavior, and defends the use despite knowing the negative consequences. There are numerous treatments for OUD, including buprenorphine. Since it is displacing a full agonist opioid, precipitated withdrawa...

Nearly 27 million people have an opioid use disorder (OUD) according to the 2016 Global Burden of Disease study, most of which occur in the US where opioids are a common class of medication used to treat acute and chronic pain. In 2016 alone, more than 60 million patients had at least one prescription for opioids filled or refilled. Over the past d...

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) rapidly emerged as a global pandemic, placing imminent stress and burden on healthcare resources and workers worldwide. Many patients who present with a severe COVID-19 infection are at high risk of developing severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), leading to a vast number of patients requiring mechan...

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most common class of drugs utilized for a variety of disorders, including headaches, pain states, fever, and other common conditions. In recent years, a link between NSAIDs and adverse effects has been identified, including renal, heart, and liver disease, bleeding, and increased mortalit...

Background: Exogenous melatonin is commonly used to treat insomnia, other sleep problems, and numerous medical illnesses, including Alzheimer’s disease, autism spectrum disorder, and mild cognitive impairment in adults and children. There is evolving information regarding issues with the use of chronic melatonin. Methods: The present investigation...

The increasing prevalence of stimulant use disorder (StUD) involving methamphetamine and cocaine has been a growing healthcare concern in the United States. Cocaine usage is associated with atherosclerosis, systolic and diastolic dysfunction, and arrhythmias. Furthermore, approximately one of every four MIs is cocaine-induced among patients aged 18...

Since the early 2010s, synthetic opioids have significantly contributed to overall opioid-related overdose mortalities. For point of reference, of the 68,630 opioid-related deaths recorded in 2020, 56,516 involved synthetic opioids. During much of this period, fentanyl has been the most commonly used synthetic opioid. This time when fentanyl was th...

The present investigation summarizes relevant symptoms, differential diagnosis, imaging, and treatment options of Eagle Syndrome. A comprehensive literature review of peer-reviewed literature was employed utilizing most relevant databases. The diagnoses of Eagle Syndrome have recently increased because of increased awareness of physicians of Eagle...

Tetracyclines are a class of broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotics used to treat many infections, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), acne, pelvic inflammatory disease, chlamydial infections, and a host of zoonotic infections. These drugs work by inhibiting protein synthesis in bacterial ribosomes, specifically by disa...

Purpose of Review Seizures are a hyperexcitable, and hypersynchronous imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory factors (E/I imbalance) in neurotransmission, and epilepsy is the recurrent manifestation of seizures within a reasonable time frame and without being attributable to a reversible cause. Brivaracetam is a derivative of the antiepileptic...

This is a review of the latest and seminal evidence in pediatric migraine. It covers the etiology and pathophysiology known today, and then will review treatment options, efficacy and safety, quality of data and indications. Though migraine is usually regarded as an infliction in adults, it is not uncommon in the pediatric population and affects up...

Purpose of Review The present investigation is a comprehensive review regarding the use of Suvorexant for insomnia treatment. It covers the background, pathophysiology, and significance of addressing insomnia, the pharmaceutical details of Suvorexant, and its safety, efficacy, and implications in treating insomnia. We further discuss Suvorexant’s r...

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a major cause of disability worldwide and is associated with serious lasting impairment. A leading hypothesis of the pathophysiology of MDD is the monoamine deficiency hypothesis which suggests that depression is caused by depletion of serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the central nervous system. Serotonin...

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) are a class of drugs that were originally developed for the treatment of depression but have since been expanded to be used in management of affective and neurological disorders, as well as stroke and aging-related neurocognitive changes. Ranging from irreversible to reversible and selective to non-selective, the...

Pain management for the general adult population can present its challenges. However, pain management for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or developmental delay (DD) offers a unique set of obstacles. The first challenge comes in assessing the child’s pain due to both communication difficulties and self-reports. The second difficulty pr...

Phenothiazines, a diverse class of drugs, can be used to treat multiple mental health and physical conditions. Phenothiazines have been used for decades to treat mental illnesses, including schizophrenia, mania in bipolar disorder, and psychosis. Additionally, these drugs offer relief for physical illnesses, including migraines, hiccups, nausea, an...

Migraine is a common form of primary headache, affecting up to 1 in every 6 Americans. The pathophysiology is an intricate interplay of genetic factors and environmental influence and is still being elucidated in ongoing studies. The trigeminovascular system is now known to have a significant role in the initiation of migraines, including the relea...

An intranasal formulation of midazolam, Nayzilam, has been FDA-approved to treat intermittent, stereotypic episodes of frequent seizure activity. Nayzilam is easy to administer and can quickly treat seizures that occur outside of the hospital. The intra-nasal route of administration allows non-medical personal to administer the drug which makes it...

Even as prescription opioid dispensing rates have begun to decrease, the use of illicit opioids such as heroin and fentanyl has increased. Thus, the end of the opioid epidemic is not in sight, and treating patients that are addicted to opioids remains of utmost importance. Currently, the primary pharmacotherapies used to treat opioid addiction over...

Methamphetamine has been labeled "America's most dangerous drug" and has received significant public health attention. Stimulant addiction and tolerance are heavily documented in the literature; increasingly larger doses maintain euphoria in short time periods to withstand stimulant tolerance. Stimulant deaths are high in the United States and abro...

As tranquilizers, benzodiazepines have a wide range of clinical uses. Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of novel psychoactive substances, including designer benzodiazepines. Flubromazolam(8-bromo-6-(2-fluorophenyl)-1-methyl-4H-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]benzodiazeZpine) is a triazolo-analogue of flubromazepam. The most commo...

Buprenorphine, a novel long-acting analgesic, was developed with the intention of two purposes: analgesia and opioid use disorder. Regarding its pharmacodynamics, it is a partial agonist at mu receptors, an inverse agonist at kappa receptors, and an antagonist at delta receptors. For the purpose of analgesia, three formulations of buprenorphine wer...

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia affecting millions of individuals, including family members who often take on the role of caregivers. This debilitating disease reportedly consumes 8% of the total United States healthcare expenditure, with medical and nursing outlays accounting for an estimated $290 billion. Cholinestera...

Stimulants are effective in treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychiatrist Charles Bradley first made this discovery in 1937 when he found that children treated with amphetamines showed improvements in school performance and behavior. Between 1995 and 2008, stimulants to treat ADHD increased six-fold among American adults an...

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood. Current treatment options for ADHD include pharmacological treatment (stimulants, non-stimulants, anti-depressants, anti-psychotics), psychological treatment (behavioral therapy with or without parent training, cognitive training, neurofeedb...

This is a comprehensive review of the literature regarding the use of Deutetrabenazine in treating chorea associated with Huntington’s disease. Unfortunately, treatment has been limited for many aspects of this neurodegenerative disease. The present investigation presents the background, evidence, and indications for the use Deutetrabenazine in the...

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder and the leading cause of disability. It causes significant morbidity and disability through a plethora of symptoms, including movement disorders, sleep disturbances, and cognitive and psychiatric symptoms. The traditional pathogenesis theory of PD involves the loss of dopaminergic neur...

Purpose of review: This is a comprehensive review of the most recent literature on glossopharyngeal neuralgia (GPN), a relatively rare form of neuropathic facial pain. It covers the epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, and differential diagnosis given that glossopharyngeal neuralgia can often be confused with other facial pain syndromes. F...

Depression is a leading cause of disability globally, with a prevalence of 3.8% among the whole population, 5% of the adult population, and 5.7% of the elderly population over 60 years of age. There is evidence that depression is linked to certain neurodegenerative diseases, one being Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The efficacy of conventional antidepre...

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder that causes significant functional impairment and is related to altered stress response and reinforced learned fear behavior. PTSD has been found to impact three functional networks in the brain: default mode, executive control, and salience. The executive control network includes the...

Narcolepsy is a debilitating sleep disorder that presents with excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and cataplexy, which is a sudden paralysis of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions such as laughing. It is also associated with many other disorders, including psychiatric disorders, neurologic illnesses, and medication side effects. Common causes...

With emerging information about the potential for morbidity and reduced life expectancy with long-term use of opioids, it is logical to evaluate nonopioid analgesic treatments to manage pain states. Combinations of drugs can provide additive and/or synergistic effects that can benefit the management of pain states. In this regard, tetrahydrocannabi...

In recent decades, the United States has seen a substantial increase in the number of people diagnosed with substance use disorder (SUD). Both SUDs and COVID-19 separately have had, and continue to have, a widespread impact on our society. While they are two distinct entities, they are intricately related and have been shown to influence one anothe...

Recently dubbed Long COVID or Long-Haul COVID, those recovering from the initial COVID-19 infection may maintain clinical signs for longer than two or more weeks following the initial onset of the infection. The virus can gain entry into the CNS through axonal transport mediated through the olfactory nerve or hematogenous spread and can also cross...

Schizophrenia is a debilitating psychotic disorder characterized by positive symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts, and negative symptoms like lack of effect or motivation. Bipolar 1 disorder (B1D) is a psychiatric illness characterized by recurrent manic episodes in alternation with depressive episodes and intersper...

Contraception use is something that most women utilize during childbearing years. In this regard, unintentional teen pregnancies are divided in half between contraception misuse and contraception nonuse. Barriers to adolescents’ use of more effective contraception methods such as intrauterine devices (IUDs) have been found in both the patients’ and...

The Possible Application of Ketamine in the Treatment of Depression in Alzheimer's Disease

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that exists at the more extreme end of a spectrum of diseases, and significantly affects daily functioning. Cardiovascular adverse effects of antipsychotic medications are well known, and include changes in blood pressure and arrhythmias. Sudden cardiac death is the leading cause of death worldwide, and antipsy...

The treatment of substance abuse with oxytocin is a novel approach to a challenging public health issue that continues to contribute to a growing economic cost for societies worldwide. Methamphetamine addiction is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide, and despite advances in understanding the neurobiology of methamphetamine addiction, t...

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia affecting millions of individuals, including family members who often take on the role as caregiver. This debilitating disease reportedly consumes 8% of the total United States healthcare expenditure, with medical and nursing outlays accounting for an estimated $290 billion. Cholinesteras...

Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) is a persistent deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies and desire resulting in significant distress or interpersonal difficulty. Women with this disorder may display a lack of motivation for sexual activity, reduced responsiveness to erotic cues, a loss of interest during sexual activity, and avoidance of...

Pregnant women constitute a vulnerable population, with 25.3% of pregnant women classified as suffering from a psychiatric disorder. Since childbearing age typically aligns with the onset of mental health disorders, it is of utmost importance to consider the effects that antipsychotic drugs have on pregnant women and their developing fetus. However...

The continued rise in the availability of illicit opioids and opioid-related deaths in the United States has left physicians, researchers, and lawmakers desperate for solutions to this ongoing epidemic. The research into therapeutic options for the treatment of opioid use disorder (OUD) began with the introduction of methadone in the 1960s. The app...

Psychiatric disorders, in general, have a high prevalence of sexual problems, whether from the psychopathology of the disorder itself, pre-existing or co-morbid sexual disorder or from side effects of the treatment for mental disorders. Many patients report an already existing sexual dysfunction at the onset of diagnosis. The risk association for d...

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder. It is also the fastest-growing neurodegenerative disorder and has more than doubled between 1990 and 2016. Parkinson’s disease causes significant morbidity and disability from motor dysfunction, sleep disturbances, and cognitive and psychiatric symptoms. This paper reviews recent evid...

Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is one of the most common childhood mental health disorders, affecting about 5.6% of the population worldwide. Several studies have specifically shown a high prevalence of comorbid mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder (BD), in those diagnosed with ADHD. Several common symptoms of ADHD are...

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in children. Over the past twenty years, research on the disease and its characteristics and treatment options has grown exponentially. The first-line pharmacologic treatment of ADHD is stimulants, which have a response rate of ~70%. With the support of f...

: Pain, the most common symptom reported among patients in the primary care setting, is complex to manage. Opioids are among the most potent analgesics agents for managing pain. Since the mid-1990s, the number of opioid prescriptions for the management of chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) has increased by more than 400%, and this increased availabilit...

Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are among one of the most widely prescribed drug classes in the United States. BZDs are a class of psychoactive drugs known for their depressant effect on the central nervous system (CNS). They quickly diffuse through the blood–brain barrier to affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and exert sedative effects. Related to...

Catatonia is a syndrome that has been associated with several mental illness disorders but that has also presented as a result of other medical conditions. Schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders such as mania and depression are known to be associated with catatonia; however, several case reports have been published of certain medical conditi...

Opioid use disorder is a well-established and growing problem in the United States. It is responsible for both psychosocial and physical damage to the affected individuals with a significant mortality rate. Given both the medical and non-medical consequences of this epidemic, it is important to understand the current treatments and approaches to op...

Given the typical age onset of schizophrenia, there are tremendous economic and social impacts that extend beyond the person and their families. One critical determinant of the diseases' impact is the patient's adherence to antipsychotic drug treatment. Approved in 2015 for the treatment of schizophrenia, paliperidone palmitate (Invega Trinza, a 3-...

Postpartum depression (PPD) is one of the three major categories on the spectrum of postpartum psychiatric syndromes. Postpartum psychiatric syndromes are classified as either postpartum blues, postpartum depression, or postpartum psychosis. Postpartum depression is important to recognize clinically because of the effect it can have on the mother-c...

: Opioids are mu receptor agonists and have been an important part of pain treatment for thousands of years. In order to use these drugs appropriately and successfully in patients, whether to control pain, to treat opiate-induced side effects, or opiate withdrawal syndromes, a solid understanding of the pharmacology of such drugs is crucial. The mo...

Problems with the treatment of acute pain may arise when a patient is opioid-tolerant, such as those on chronic therapy with opioids or opiate replacement therapy, those who misuse opioids, and those who are in recovery. While some of the adverse effects of opioid medications are well known, it is also important to recognize the roles of tolerance...