Reading and Writing

Explicit morphology instruction has been recommended for poor readers. Still, hardly any studies have compared the effectiveness of both explicit and implicit morphology training in relation to business-as-usual support in improving reading proficiency. In this study, 277 poor readers in Grades 2 and 3 participated in a computer-assisted eight-week intervention focusing on suffixes in a randomised control trial, with pre-, post- and follow-up assessment in schools for Swedish-speaking children in Finland. Students were randomly allocated into two experimental groups and one control group. The first experimental group played a digital game with explicit instruction in lexical morphology (explicit). The other experimental group played the game without said instruction (implicit). Intervention and Grade effects were analysed using mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA). A significant time x group intervention effect was found only in the implicit vs. control group comparison between pre- and post-assessments; a moderate gain in identification of trained words assessed in a game-like manner was found in the implicit group unlike in controls. The difference in gain remained significant at follow-up for both grades. Additionally, third graders in the implicit group demonstrated a more significant improvement than controls in reading aloud pseudowords with trained suffixes, both in the pre‒post comparison and at follow-up. Results suggest that poor readers benefitted from implicit morphology training, but explicit instruction in lexical morphology (animations with verbal explanations) did not have a significant effect on reading proficiency.

Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to understand others’ cognitive and emotional states, is a critical component of children’s overall development, including social skills as well as language and literacy development. While individual empirical studies have sought to understand the role of interventions in promoting ToM in diverse child and adolescent populations, no study to date has looked across multiple articles to examine the efficacy of interventions employing adult–child storybook-based interactions on children’s cognitive and affective ToM abilities. Applying a systematic review method, we reviewed and analyzed studies to evaluate the effectiveness of storybook interventions and provide an overview of studies’ interventions and findings. Interventions in educational settings led by teachers were among the most effective implementations of storybook-based interventions for building ToM. One critical component contributing to the effectiveness of the interventions was the additional, extratextual discussion of the thoughts and perspectives of both the characters and the child. We offer implications and recommendations based on these findings.

This study examined the longitudinal interplay of fathers’ and mothers’ literacy teaching and children’s word reading skills and interest in literacy. A total of 194 second-year kindergarten (K2) children and their fathers and mothers in Hong Kong participated. At the three time points from K2 to K3 (i.e., the third year in kindergarten), fathers and mothers independently reported the frequency of their own literacy teaching activities. Mothers reported their children’s interest in literacy-related activities. The children were individually assessed on Chinese word reading. The results from cross-lagged panel analysis showed that the children’s prior literacy interest was associated with later frequency of parental literacy teaching, but not the other way around. No significant relations were observed between the children’s word-reading skills and the literacy teaching provided by their mothers or by their fathers. Additionally, it was the children’s earlier word reading skills that predicted their later development of literacy interest, but not vice versa. Thus, the parents seemed to adjust their home literacy teaching flexibly in response to their perceptions of their children’s literacy interest. The findings also underscore the potential importance of word reading abilities in fostering children’s literacy interest.

The relevance effect refers to the influence that instructions have on readers’ attention and learning. The present study examined whether relevance influences elementary school students’ reading comprehension and cognitive engagement. To measure the latter, eye movements and postural sway were recorded in 42 French speaking students aged 9.3–11.6 years. Eye movements were recorded with infrared-based eye-tracking glasses, and postural sway with an infrared-based motion capture system. Children read two texts, one task-relevant and one task-irrelevant, and answered surface and inference questions right after reading it. Results showed that children scored better on surface and inference questions about the relevant text than about the irrelevant one. As for eye movements, readers made more fixations on the relevant text and spent more time reading it. There was also less postural sway during the reading of the relevant text. These results indicate that cognitive engagement during reading is embodied in fourth- and fifth-grade students, with postural stability probably reflecting cognitive engagement and promoting the construction of meaning during reading tasks.

Elementary-school students are increasingly required to compose texts on computers. Composing involves both higher-level (planning, translating and revising) and lower-level (i.e., transcription) skills. It is assumed that automatic lower-level skills enable students to focus their attention on the higher composition demands. However, while composing instruction is part of the language arts curriculum, computer literacy instruction (e.g., typing and word processing [WP]) receives less attention. This disparity may affect composition performance, but the evidence for this premise is limited. To address this gap, the Word Processing and Typing Instructional Program (WoTIP) was developed which is grounded in motor learning, ergonomics, and self-regulated learning principles, and incorporated within a language arts curriculum via a collaborative consultation model. The study examined: (a) if the WoTIP will improve students’ typing speed, WP, and composition performance compared to a ‘no touch-typing or WP instruction’ control group; and (b) if improvement in typing and WP will be associated with enhanced composition performance. This study included Grade 4 students (N = 51). Findings showed that the WoTIP group (n = 27) significantly improved their typing and WP performance, as well as their composition quantity and quality, compared to the control group (n = 24). Additionally, a low significant correlation was observed between WP and composition quantity and between typing, WP and composition quality. Hence, it appears that the WoTIP may be an effective program for enhancing both transcription and composing abilities of Grade 4 students.

The Poor Comprehender (PC) reading profile is characterised by difficulty comprehending text despite age-appropriate decoding skills. Risk for this profile is typically identified through static screening instruments measuring pre-existing knowledge, which may produce biased estimates for culturally and linguistically diverse children. In contrast, Dynamic Assessment (DA) measures potential to learn new knowledge and has been shown to reduce bias in screening. To date, however, DA has not been used to identify PC reading profile risk status. Adopting a longitudinal design, we used an adapted DA of word learning to measure growth in vocabulary and reading comprehension among a diverse sample of 322 primary school children (aged 9 years at the first time point) in England over a period of 16-19 months, and to classify later PC reading profile risk status. Two separate factor scores representing phonological and semantic aspects of word learning predicted unique variance in the growth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension after accounting for traditional static predictors. The DA of word learning achieved excellent classification accuracy for identifying poor comprehenders, identifying all of the poor comprehenders with EAL when added to the static assessments. Results suggest that DA of word learning may be a promising tool in screening for the PC reading profile, particularly for EAL pupils, ensuring that the risk of reading comprehension difficulties does not go unidentified in such learners.

It has been widely accepted that phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), and verbal short-term memory (VSTM) deficits are three core facets of phonological deficits in developmental dyslexia (DD) of alphabetic orthographies. Yet, whether these three phonological facets also represent key phonological deficits of DD in Chinese, a logographic language, has never been investigated. The current study aimed to examine profiles of phonological deficits and comorbidity in Chinese DD. We tested 128 children with DD aged between 8 and 11 years and 135 age-matched controls on 9 tasks, including 2 PA tasks (phoneme deletion and onset/rime deletion), 3 RAN tasks (digit, object and color), 2 VSTM task (spoonerisms and digit span), an orthographic awareness task (orthographic judgment), and a morphological awareness task (morphological production). With the control of morphological and orthographic awareness, results from latent profile analysis revealed three latent profiles, namely the RAN deficit group, the severe PA deficit group, and the mild VSTM deficit group. Individual analysis using a Venn plot showed that 83.59% of DD exhibited phonological deficits, among whom 58.59% with RAN deficit, 49.22% with PA deficit, and 47.66% with VSTM deficit, and all three groups shared overlap. The results have important implications for the identification and remediation of Chinese DD.

This study followed a sample of 146 first-grade children from two elementary schools in mainland China over four sessions within two years. We explored the developmental trajectories of Chinese character recognition and radical awareness and the interactions between them through the parallel process latent growth curve model. We also investigated the effects of homophone awareness, homograph awareness, and orthography awareness on the initial level and developmental rate of Chinese character recognition and radical awareness. The results showed that: (1) There was a significant growth trend in Chinese character recognition and radical awareness, and both showed compensatory effects; (2) The initial level of radical awareness had a significant negative predictive effect on the developmental rate of Chinese character recognition; (3) Homophone awareness and orthography awareness had a positive predictive effect on the initial level of Chinese character recognition after controlling the effect of nonverbal intelligence; (4) Orthography awareness had a negative predictive effect on the developmental rate of Chinese character recognition. Subsequently, the importance of these findings for children’s written word learning was discussed.

Diglossia is defined as the use of one official language in a formal context (e.g., school), including reading and writing, and an unofficial language in an informal context (e.g., home). Many Chinese children have experienced diglossia. However, the impact of diglossia on Chinese children’s literacy development remains unclear. To examine the impact of diglossia on that development, we explored the diglossia effect in a group of Mandarin-Cantonese-speaking Chinese children. One hundred and twenty-three third-grade and sixth-grade students from a primary school were tested for non-verbal intelligence, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, delayed copying, word reading, and word dictation. The results of between-subjects analysis of covariance revealed that children growing up in a diglossic context scored significantly lower in terms of morphological and phonological awareness than their nondiglossic peers. We noted a slightly positive effect of diglossia on word dictation in third graders. In addition, multiple-group path analyses from metalinguistic skills to word reading and dictation showed different patterns in the diglossic and nondiglossic groups. These findings confirm the impact of diglossia on Chinese children’s literacy development while highlighting the complexity of the effects of diglossia.

This study investigates the contributions of emotion vocabulary, non-emotion vocabulary, and reading fluency to various aspects of reading comprehension in monolingual Hebrew-speaking children. We examined these contributions across different levels of understanding (simple and complex) and text types (narrative and informative). The study included the Herut test, a novel vocabulary measure incorporating emotion words (ɑ = 0.81). A comprehensive battery of measures was administered to 960 fourth- and fifth-grade students from 21 schools. Multilevel modelling analyses revealed that emotion vocabulary consistently emerged as the strongest predictor across all reading comprehension tasks, surpassing both non-emotion vocabulary and reading fluency. Emotion vocabulary showed a particularly strong association with complex comprehension tasks and narrative texts. Significant classroom-level effects were also observed. These findings challenge existing models of reading comprehension and suggest the need for a more integrated approach that incorporates emotion vocabulary as a core component. The results have important implications for both theory and practice in literacy education.

Narrative voice and focalization are two essential narrative techniques, but their roles in understanding narrative texts still need to be determined. This study uses Event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate how auditory comprehension of literary text is affected by narrative voice and mode of focalization, and how these influences are moderated by individual differences in social cognition (e.g., mind-reading ability). Thirty-six valid native speakers of Chinese were finally involved in this study. The findings revealed that pronouns in first-person narration generated a stronger early positivity (P200) compared to pronouns in third-person narration, irrespective of whether the story was narrated from the character’s perspective (internal focalization) or the narrator’s perspective (external focalization). Importantly, in the later stage, the third-person narration elicited a greater sustained negativity (N600) than the first-person narration when the story was internally focalized. However, there was no distinction between the two voices when the story was externally focalized. Additionally, a positive correlation was found between the negativity difference effect (third-person pronoun vs. first-person pronoun) and the comprehenders’ social cognition performance when the story had internal focalization. These findings suggest that the existing debates regarding the functional differences between first-person and third-person narration cannot be resolved unless additional narrative techniques, such as focalization, are considered.

It is well-established that morphological awareness is related to reading comprehension. Morphological awareness is often assessed with a sentence completion task, in which children are asked to complete a sentence with a related word (e.g., “warm. He chose the jacket for its __”). As evident from this classic example, semantic relations could influence performance because warmth is related in meaning to jacket. We examine whether the degree of semantic relations in the sentence completion task influences the association between morphological awareness and reading comprehension. In grade 3, English-speaking children did a sentence completion task in two conditions: one with sentences designed to have high semantic relations with the target and another with low. Children also completed control measures of non-verbal reasoning, vocabulary, phonological awareness, working memory, and word reading fluency. At grade 4, children completed reading comprehension. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that performance on both conditions of the sentence completion task (i.e., high and low semantic relations) significantly predicted reading comprehension, after all controls. Intriguingly, when both tasks were in the same regression, only performance on the high semantic relations task made a unique contribution to reading comprehension. The findings confirm the contribution to reading comprehension of morphological awareness, assessed with the sentence completion task, and show the relevance of semantic dimensions to these relations. As such, findings appear to validate the use of sentence completion to assess morphological awareness and highlight its capture of the multidimensional nature of morphological awareness, including its semantic dimensions.

Several surveys have shown that the type of paper used in classroom writing activities varies considerably between schoolteachers, school grades, and also countries. The present study aims to (1) evaluate if handwriting quality (both legibility and fluency) of school age children is better when they write on lined than on unlined paper and (2) explore whether fine motor and visuomotor skills of children could moderate the potential effects of lined paper. To this end, 34 third-grade students copied a text on blank and lined paper. All children were exposed to the two paper conditions (within-subject design). Handwriting legibility and fluency were evaluated using the Concise Assessment Scale for Children’s Handwriting. The students’ fine motor and hand–eye coordination skills were also assessed to determine whether these factors moderate the effect of line presence. The results revealed that handwriting legibility was better on lined paper than on unlined paper. However, fluency was not impacted by the presence of lines on the paper. Moderation analyses revealed that for third-grade students, lined paper similarly impacts handwriting performance regardless of their fine motor and visuomotor skills. The implications of these findings for guiding teachers in choosing a type of paper for classroom handwriting activities are discussed.

A substantial body of research, including narrative and meta-analytic reviews, has established concurrent and longitudinal relationships between sensitivity to speech prosody and reading ability. This study synthesised research findings pertaining to a possible impairment of prosodic skills in dyslexia. Three-level meta-analysis was utilised to synthesise 124 effect sizes from 37 studies comprising data from 1771 participants (mean age = 13.7 years, range: 6–26). A moderate-to-large impairment of prosodic competence relative to chronological-age-controls was identified. The effect emerged consistently across languages and different types of prosodic competence task, individual studies were adequately powered to detect effects of this magnitude, and there was no evidence of publication bias. There was no significant impairment relative to reading-age-controls. There was also no impairment for tasks tapping the implicit processing and mental representation of prosody. However, studies in the literature are not sufficiently powered to detect smaller differences between reading groups. The evidence is consistent with a developmental delay in prosodic competence in dyslexia. One interpretation of this is that prosodic competence is in some way dependent on reading experience. Findings also support theoretical models of dyslexia which emphasise explicit processing of phonology, rather than impaired phonological representations or underlying sensory difficulties. However, fully addressing questions of causality will require additional studies that incorporate reading-age-controls and possess sufficient statistical power to detect small effects.

This study investigates how the presence and proper use of causal and concessive connectives affect the comprehension and production of English discourse among Chinese English learners. Seventy-two English major undergraduates with similar language proficiency levels read four narrative texts featuring varying connective conditions (correct use, incorrect causal, incorrect concessive, or absence of connectives). They then answered identical comprehension questions and completed the same reading-writing continuation task. The results showed that the use of causal and concessive connectives improve both local and global discourse comprehension for second language learners. Furthermore, these connectives enhance their writing quality, with causal connectives more related to discourse coherence and concessive connectives more associated with language complexity. Overall, the study highlights the significance of causal and concessive connectives in facilitating comprehensible input and intelligible output for second language learners, pointing out their distinct roles in this dynamic process.

Reading comprehension and reading motivation are strongly related. The current study explored the relation between groups of students with different reading profiles (poor decoders, poor comprehenders, good readers, difficulties with both decoding and comprehension – mixed deficit) and key dimensions of motivation. We assessed 120 students (2nd to 6th grade, 57 boys, 63 girls) using standardised assessments of reading comprehension, word reading, and language comprehension. Cluster analysis identified a four-cluster solution in line with the four hypothesised reading profiles. Children completed a reading motivation questionnaire examining affirming (perceived self-efficacy, reading value) and undermining (perceived difficulty, and devaluation of reading) motivations. Mixed deficit students exhibited higher reading value, perceived difficulty, and devaluation of reading than good readers. Poor decoders showed higher reading value than good readers and lower perceived difficulty than mixed deficit students. Poor comprehenders did not show differences with any of the other profiles, and no differences were found between profiles on perceived self-efficacy. These results show that different types of reader have different profiles of reading motivation and underscore the importance of understanding the nuanced relationships of reading difficulties with diverse dimensions of reading motivation.

The main aim of the current study was to investigate the role of teacher–child relationship quality in kindergarten on children’s motivation (interest in reading and task persistence) and reading skills in Grade 1. A total of 231 children (age at baseline 6.8 years; 50.6% girls) completed reading-related tasks and answered questions about their interest in reading. Eighteen kindergarten teachers completed questionnaires about the teacher–child relationship for each child in kindergarten. School psychologists reported on children’s task persistence during tests. A cross-lagged path model analysis revealed that teacher–child conflict in kindergarten predicted lower task persistence and interest in reading at the beginning of Grade 1. In addition, we found two indirect effects of teacher–child conflict in kindergarten on reading skills at the end of Grade 1 via task persistence and interest in reading at the beginning of Grade 1. The current study emphasizes the importance of teacher–child relationship quality in kindergarten and its longitudinal effects on the development of children’s motivation and reading skills in Grade 1.

When a Chinese character is inspected over a period, it gradually becomes unfamiliar, a phenomenon referred to as the satiation effect. Previous studies have debated whether the phonological information of Chinese characters has an impact on the satiation effect. This study examined the impact of sub-lexical and lexical phonological information, namely regularity and consistency, on the satiation of Chinese characters. Experiment 1 investigated the satiation effect across three types of characters: regular characters, irregular characters, and characters with bound phonetic radicals. Results showed that all three types of characters exhibited a significant satiation effect, but there was no difference in their satiation rate, suggesting limited influence of regularity on Chinese character satiation. In contrast, Experiment 2 revealed a significant effect of consistency on satiation. Results showed that the satiation effect was only present for high-consistency characters and not for low-consistency ones. These results provide new insight into how the phonological information conveyed by the phonetic radicals impacts the satiation effect of Chinese characters.

Although there is overwhelming evidence highlighting the foundational role of phonological processing and vocabulary skills in reading, less research has focused on the contribution of these skills to spelling, particularly in African languages. This longitudinal study explored cognitive-linguistic predictors of spelling development in Northern Sotho-English bilingual children. Children were assessed on phonological awareness, phonological working memory, rapid automatized naming, and receptive vocabulary in Grade 2 (Time 1) and on spelling development at the end of Grade 3 (Time 2). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming were unique within and cross-language predictors of word spelling in both Northern Sotho and English. This study represents a first attempt to understand the processes that support bilingual spelling development in Northern Sotho children learning English as an additional language. The findings contribute to the body of research investigating spelling development in bilingual children who are learning languages with different orthographical systems. Based on the findings, we recommend that bilingual spelling and phonics instruction explicitly reflect the phonological systems of both languages.

Cross-linguistic studies found that reading comprehension correlates with oral reading prosody. The study examined whether text difficulty would be involved in oral reading prosody in orthographically deep languages like Mandarin. One hundred and three fourth-grade children were recruited in Taipei, Taiwan. Their oral reading prosody was elicited by four passages varying in text difficulty and then measured through acoustic analyses and scale ratings. Results revealed that (i) three dimensions of oral reading prosody (i.e., pitch, pause duration, and pause intrusion) were extracted from acoustic variables, regardless of text difficulty, and (ii) easy passages’ oral reading prosody predicted reading comprehension more than a difficult passage’s. The findings suggest that reading comprehension is predicted by oral reading prosody, which could be measured across acoustic analyses (i.e., pause and pitch) and scale ratings (i.e., natural pausing and appropriate intonation). Word reading in a challenging passage constrains children’s semantic and syntactic processing in oral reading prosody for reading comprehension in orthographically deep languages.

With three groups of first-grade French children, we tested different spelling teaching strategies, and notably the effectiveness of individualized teaching approach adapted to each child’s pace of learning and words already known, compared with traditional strategies identical for all children. An experimental group was offered individualized distributed relearning sessions with feedback. A traditional group learned words with the teacher’s usual approach: observing the word, copying it, revising it and writing it in a dictation at the end of the week. A control group received no explicit spelling instruction for the tested words. At the end of the experiment, the children in all groups had to write the words in an isolated task or included in sentences, or produce them spontaneously to describe a picture. The words varied in frequency, consistency, and length. Analyses of the rates of correctly spelled words using linear mixed models showed poorer performance in the control group than in the traditional or experimental groups. The experimental group performed better than the traditional group when spelling inconsistent or long words. The experimental group’s performance was relatively consistent whatever the task, including a written sentence production task. The initial results of this exploratory study are encouraging and should be extended to other school levels and other languages. The discussion focuses on the value of deploying such a strategy in the classroom to better adapt to the pace and initial spelling level of each child in French or in any language for which spelling is particularly opaque.

Argumentation is a critical genre of writing that elementary school students are expected to develop, but little is known about how different domains of language contribute to argumentative writing. To explore this, we identified two domains of language: linguistic knowledge (lexical, morphological, and syntactic skills) and linguistic awareness (ability to identify and manipulate discourse- and text-level features). We worked with 119 fourth and fifth grade Spanish- and Portuguese-English bilingual students in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. We asked whether students’ linguistic knowledge served as a direct predictor of argumentative writing, or as an indirect predictor of argumentative writing, mediated by linguistic awareness. We explored this question with two writing outcomes: students’ argumentation and counter-argumentation. Controlling for orthographic knowledge, essay length, and English learner status, structural equation modeling revealed that students’ linguistic knowledge predicted their argumentative writing indirectly through linguistic awareness, but not directly. Neither the direct nor indirect effects structural model predicted students’ counter-argumentation. Our results extend theory on school-related writing tasks by differentiating between linguistic knowledge and linguistic awareness in understanding bilingual students’ written argumentation, with implications for instruction.

Spelling is a measure of the precision of lexical representations, which is important for word reading, comprehension, and writing. Performance on spelling tests is typically assessed in terms of correctness. We asked whether nonbinary measures of spelling errors provide additional information about lexical quality. Letter distance was the number of letters that needed to be changed to transform each error into the correct spelling. Phoneme distance was the number of changes necessary to transform the error into a phonologically plausible spelling of the target. Using longitudinal data, we asked whether these nonbinary measures of Time 1 error quality helped predict Time 2 spelling after considering the traditional correctness-based measure of Time 1 performance. We addressed this question by analyzing data from 756 children who received a standardized spelling production test at a mean age of 10.5 years and standardized spelling production and recognition tasks at a mean age of 15.9 years. The correctness-based measure of Time 1 spelling was a strong predictor of Time 2 performance, as expected, but letter distance had significant additional predictive value. Time 1 phoneme distance was not a significant predictor when correctness and letter distance were included in the model. The results show that we can gain information about lexicality quality from a spelling production test by using a nonbinary measure of spelling errors in addition to the traditional correctness-based measure.

This study is a cross-sectional developmental investigation of inflectional and derivational morphological awareness (MA) in Arabic diglossia. It examines the impact of the morphological distance between Spoken Arabic (SpA) and Standard Arabic (StA) on inflectional morphological awareness and derivational morphological awareness in a sample of 200 speakers of Palestinian Arabic (PA) in 2nd through 10th grade from mid-high and low SES backgrounds (N = 40 per grade, 20 per SES group). Eight MA tasks using morphological analogies and sentence completion were used that tested inflectional MA and derivational MA in SpA and in StA. Results showed a growth in inflectional and in derivational awareness across grades in both SES groups despite generally higher scores in the mid-high SES group. More interestingly, the results showed a consistent effect of morphological distance on morphological awareness in both morphological systems and in both SES groups, with MA for unique StA morphological structures lower than that for structures available in SpA. Moreover, the impact of morphological distance was more prominent in younger than in older children and in low than in mid-high SES. Finally, when morphological awareness in SpA was tested, inflectional awareness was higher than derivational awareness and showed a shorter cross-sectional developmental trajectory, reflecting universal linguistic and distributional properties of inflections. In contrast, when morphological awareness in StA was analyzed, inflectional awareness was lower than derivational awareness and showed a longer trajectory reflecting the wider linguistic distance between SpA and StA in inflectional morphology. The results underscore the significance of morphological system characteristics and morphological distance in understanding morphological awareness development in Arabic.

Students today need to become good digital citizens in order to operate successfully when reading, writing, learning, and interacting socially online. Digital citizenship depends on online access, mastery of technical skills for using digital devices, guidance from parents and teachers, and applying established social norms for online behavior. To investigate each of these aspects of digital citizenship, we examined the survey responses of 2,005 Grades 4 to 9 students (56% were female) who were randomly selected from 3,286 schools in Chongqing China. Virtually all students (96%) reported having internet access at home, and spent an average of 28 min online at home (SD = 25.42) and 17 min at school (SD = 28.94). Ninety-five percent of students were positive about their digital capabilities; 89% of them indicated online responsibilities and rights were taught at school; and 58% noted parents guided their internet use. On average, students slightly agreed that being online was important, but averaged moderate agreement they liked to read and write online for academic and social purposes, with reading online occurring weekly and writing online monthly. On average, students moderately agreed that they followed norms of digital netiquette, practiced safe online privacy behaviors, managed their digital footprint appropriately, balanced digital media use in healthy ways, and approached digital media in a literate manner. Nevertheless, 24% of students agreed they had been cyberbullied, 73% shared passwords with friends, 68% befriended strangers, 39% reshared posts, 78% used false personal information to register online, and 24% copied text directly from online sources when doing homework. Measures of digital citizenship were statistically related to student characteristics, internet use, and beliefs about online engagement. Implications for practice and future research are presented.