Psychology of Religion and Spirituality

Religious communities and traditions often discuss the preconditions necessary for God to forgive a believer’s sin or transgression. This study examines adult American Christians’ beliefs about the preconditions for divine forgiveness (DF) and whether these beliefs differ based on features of a forgiveness-relevant situation or features of the individual Christian. We recruited a nationwide sample of 1,021 U.S. adult Christians (51.8% female, 44.4% racial minorities). Participants were 18 or older, lived in the United States, identified as Christian, believed in God, and were highly religious. They completed a vignette-based measure of perceived preconditions for DF, along with measures of trait-based God representations and several psychospiritual states (present-moment DF, connectedness with God, self-kindness, positive affect, depressive affect, and anxious affect). The most endorsed DF preconditions were confessing the transgression to God (64.0%), asking God for forgiveness (66.2%), taking responsibility (58.0%), feeling remorseful (50.9%), and repenting (51.2%). Christians who were Catholic, Pentecostal, and/or a racial/ethnic minority were particularly likely to endorse these preconditions. Benevolent God representations were associated with the belief that DF is contingent on asking God for forgiveness, taking responsibility, and repenting. Christians who presently felt forgiven by and connected with God were slightly more likely to view DF as contingent on asking God for forgiveness and repenting; Christians who presently felt depressed or anxious were slightly less likely. In conclusion, U.S. Christian adults often believe certain preconditions must be met before receiving DF. These perceptions differ based on sociodemographics (race, Catholic or denominational affiliation), God representations, and positive and negative psychospiritual states.

Adults, and sometimes children, endorse acts of God as a cause of significant life events (Ray et al., 2015; Woolley et al., 2011). The present study explores children’s concepts of God as a being that intervenes in people’s lives and their potential relations with age, perceptions of personal control, family religiosity, and parental beliefs. A sample of 146 predominantly Christian 6- to 12-year-olds completed three tasks assessing beliefs about God’s intervention and their perceptions of personal control. Parents completed a questionnaire assessing family religiosity and beliefs about God’s intervention. Results revealed that most children claimed that God intervenes in human affairs and endorsed God’s intervention in various domains, including health and safety, psychological states, and the environment. Children who perceived that they held less control over their lives were more likely to claim that God had the potential to intervene on Earth. Parent intervention beliefs and family religiosity were associated with overlapping but unique aspects of children’s intervention beliefs, suggesting that these two sources of information may differentially affect children’s beliefs about God’s intervention. This research highlights the importance of exploring how children’s beliefs about divine intervention develop, considering both familial socialization and the potential impact of increasing scientific knowledge as they grow older.

What role do virtues play in disagreeing well? And are certain virtues more or less strongly associated with improved outcomes in interpersonal and ideological conflict? Our central research question was to identify which virtues were most strongly associated with regulating potential conflict among Christians. We conducted three studies (N = 967) sampling Christian adults in the United States to examine this question through a series of questionnaires using Prolific. Study 1 (n = 295) tested six virtues in predicting self-reported constructive conflict engagement among Christians: hope, humility, courage, generosity, patience, and wisdom. Study 2 (n = 292) replicated these findings and extended this work using measures of behavioral intentions toward aggression. Study 3 (n = 380) sought to replicate and clarify the findings with a nationally representative sample. The results suggest that patience and generosity were consistent, reliable predictors of disagreeing well. Though all six virtues were associated with disagreeing well, patience and generosity were uniquely predictive of constructive responses to conflict. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of this research.

Classic psychedelics have long been used in religious and healing rituals. A recent wave of scientific research has examined the acute effects of psychedelics, including how experiences with them are often described as spiritual, religious, or mystical. However, research has paid insufficient attention to the role of psychedelic experiences in the context of religious/spiritual development. In two studies, we examine religious and spiritual changes related to psychedelic use. In Study 1, using data from multiple birth cohort studies—the 1958 National Child Development Study and the 1970 British Cohort Study (for both, N > 11,000)—we examined the relationship between lifetime psychedelic use and religious affiliation, including religious changes (i.e., de/conversion or switching) and beliefs. In Study 2, we examined prospective changes in self-identification as religious and spiritual over a 2-month period among people who reported psychedelic use in a representative sample from the United Kingdom and the United States (N = 9,732). In Study 1, religious affiliation in childhood and adulthood were associated with reduced likelihood of psychedelic use. Also, lifetime psychedelic use was associated with greater likelihood of stable nonaffiliation with religion and with religious disaffiliation. lysergic acid diethylamide use predicted switching between religions as well. In Study 2, psychedelic use was not related to changes in religiosity or spirituality. Notably, psychedelics’ associations with religious changes did generally not differ from other illicit substances. We discuss our findings by highlighting the context-dependence of psychedelics and their effects and relating them to secularization-related trends.

Many people apply supernatural explanations to understand the cause of important positive and negative life events, but specific types of events are more likely to evoke specific supernatural explanations that best satisfy various personal motives. We test the hypothesis that believers will differ in their willingness to apply karmic explanations to their own experiences compared to the experiences of other people, such that they are more willing to explain their own positive experiences as caused by their own karmic merit (to satisfy self-enhancement motives), while being more willing to explain other people’s negative experiences as karmic punishment for others’ misdeeds (to satisfy justice motives). In three studies (total N = 2,041), we ask participants to recall events believed to have been caused by karma in their own life and events believed to have been caused by karma in the lives of other people, and we code whether these descriptions of karma-caused events are primarily positive or negative, using a combination of human coders, sentiment analysis, and participants’ self-reported evaluations of the events. Results consistently show that positive experiences are more likely to come to mind when they think about how karma influences their own life, but negative experiences are more likely when thinking about other’s karma, although this difference was weaker in Singapore and India than in the United States. Results are consistent with predicted self-enhancement biases in karmic attributions and show how personal motivations predict willingness to adopt supernatural explanations for specific life events.

How do psychedelic experiences affect spiritual struggles? We examined this question through three linked surveys. In Study 1, U.S. adults reporting psychedelic use (n = 574) completed an online survey. Those reporting psychedelic effects on spiritual struggles were invited to complete follow-up surveys on struggle resolution (Study 2A; n = 260) and/or struggle causation (Study 2B; n = 248) via psychedelics. In Study 1, psychedelics most strongly affected ultimate meaning struggles—whether causing or resolving them. Participants who were younger and more religious reported more effects of psychedelics on spiritual struggles (both resolution and causation). Struggle resolution was linked with more psychedelic use and positive psychedelic experiences and attitudes. Struggle causation was related to Christian identification, substance abuse and perceived addiction, negative psychedelic experiences and attitudes, and concern about demonic involvement. Follow-up surveys showed that relative to struggle causation cases, struggle resolution cases included more mystical elements, fewer challenging experiences, more spiritual growth, and less spiritual decline. Yet spiritual growth and decline were largely independent, as were mystical and challenging aspects of psychedelic experiences. Qualitative coding suggested that psychedelics helped resolve struggles for psychological reasons (e.g., new perspectives; reduced stress; acceptance) and spiritual/supernatural reasons (e.g., interconnectedness; increased afterlife beliefs; experiencing new dimensions or states of consciousness). Psychedelics caused/worsened struggles through challenges to religious beliefs, increased distress, disturbing entity encounters, detachment, moral dilemmas, and being forced to confront unsettling thoughts or feelings. Psychedelics can cause or worsen spiritual struggles but may also help to resolve them.

Based on intergenerational family solidarity theory, in the present study, we examined the role of parent–adolescent religious similarity (consensual solidarity) on parent–adolescent connectedness (affectual solidarity) as well as whether adolescent empathy skills and authoritative parenting style would buffer the negative effects of religious discrepancy. The sample came from Waves 3–5 of the Flourishing Families Project data (Wave 3; N = 473; M age of child = 13.32, SD = 1.06; 51% female). Measures captured three dimensions of parent and adolescent religiousness at Waves 3–4 (worship service attendance, prayer, and importance of religion), adolescent empathy and perceptions of authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles at Waves 3–4, and parent–adolescent connectedness at Waves 3–5. Using two variable-centered analytic approaches (regression with difference scores; polynomial regression with response surface analysis), we found small significant effects in expected directions for parent–adolescent religiousness and parent–adolescent connectedness. We found partial support for empathy and authoritative parenting style as moderators. Using a person-centered analytic approach (latent profile analysis), we identified three class profiles for parent–adolescent dyads: low-religious authoritative, high-religious authoritative, and discrepant-religious authoritarian. These profiles differed on parent–adolescent connectedness cross-sectionally but not longitudinally. Parent–adolescent religious discrepancy, although present during this phase of life, seems only minimally linked to parent–adolescent connectedness, and this is only somewhat dependent on empathy and parenting styles. However, empathy and parenting styles do contribute substantially to parent–adolescent connectedness.

Mysticism refers to extraordinary human experiences that transcend perceived reality and transform the individual. Much of the study of mysticism has focused on monistic, unitary experiences, often overlooking indigenous traditions that emphasize pluralistic experiences. This research examines lived Daoist experiences, expanding the theory of mysticism to include the body and personal subjectivity in realizing spiritual potential. We interviewed 20 Daoist practitioners using open-ended questions about their spiritual practices and compared the findings with a prior study that used semistructured questions (Chen et al., 2023). By combining data from both studies, network analysis was conducted with 39 participants to examine the centrality and structure of core Daoist experiences. The results highlight a distinctive form of mysticism that emphasizes bodily sensations and the maintenance of subjectivity in resonance with the world and divine forces. This contrasts with traditional monistic mysticism, which focuses on mental contemplation and the dissolution of self into primordial emptiness. Additionally, this study explores how Daoists interpret these experiences, situating them within Daoist theology. As one of the first in-depth investigations of Daoist mystical experiences, this work advocates for a more comprehensive understanding of mysticism that encompasses the marvel of both the body and the spirit.

In psychotherapy, relational depth (RD) is associated with symptom reductions, psychological growth, authenticity, and spiritual experiences. This study used a dyadic perspective to analyze the relationship between RD, spiritual growth, and authenticity in spiritual direction. We used a cross-sectional design and the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model to examine the associations of the director’s and directee’s experience of RD with their respective spiritual growth and authenticity (actor effect) and the spiritual growth and authenticity of their partner (partner effect). A total of 40 dyads—40 spiritual directors (all males, Mage = 40.23, SD = 7.11) and 40 directees (63.4% female, Mage = 35.63, SD = 7.56)—completed the Relational Depth Frequency Scale, the Kernis–Goldman Authenticity Inventory–Short Form, and the Spiritual Transformation Scale. The directees’ frequency of RD was negatively associated with their spiritual growth but positively correlated with the directors’ spiritual growth. Post hoc analyses showed that spiritual directors’ frequency of RD was significantly associated with directees’ authenticity, but this was only the case for directors in the younger age bracket (aged 28–40). These findings suggest that the role of the relationship in spiritual direction differs from that in psychotherapy: RD in spiritual direction could be linked to a psychological need, which may detract from spiritual growth. However, RD in younger directors may support a directee’s authenticity. Future research may explore these associations using a longitudinal design and include psychological outcome variables.

Religiously raised sexual minorities may face additional stressors associated with their religious upbringing. This project had three main aims: (a) to examine several proposed predictors of moral struggle around same-sex relationships (religious socialization; moral foundations emphasizing purity; perceived negative attitudes about same-sex relationships by God, one’s religious community and family, and oneself; internal conflict; perceived negative divine consequences), (b) to examine how moral struggles and its proposed predictors relate to well-being (internalized homonegativity, depression, anxiety, life satisfaction), and (c) to evaluate whether moral struggles still predict well-being even when controlling for proposed predictors and other background variables. We did an internet survey of 484 Christian-raised adults reporting same-sex attraction, preregistering key hypotheses. We created new measures to assess some proposed predictors of moral struggle. The new measures showed good reliability and preliminary evidence of validity. All proposed predictor variables related to greater moral struggle, as expected. In regression, internal conflict and perceived negative divine consequences emerged as robust predictors of moral struggle. As predicted, moral struggle and its predictors all showed consistent positive associations with internalized homonegativity. Moral struggle, though unrelated to life satisfaction, was linked with greater anxiety and depression, as expected. Notably, moral struggle predicted significant variance in internalized homonegativity, depression, and anxiety, even when controlling for all proposed predictors and a large set of background variables. Moral struggles around same-sex relationships often reflect internal conflict and concern about divine punishment or abandonment. These moral struggles are robust predictors of internalized homonegativity, anxiety, and depression.

We investigated factors contributing to rising religious deidentification in Iran, a Muslim-majority country where disparities exist in the religious demographics provided by the governmental census and independent surveys. Using cultural evolution theory, we examined the impact of credibility enhancing and undermining displays (CREDs and CRUDs) at three levels: parents, community members, and religious leaders. Across two correlational and one experimental study (two preregistered), we measured associations between CREDs, CRUDs, and religious (de)identification. Study 3 experimentally manipulated religious leaders’ CRUDs. Studies 1 and 2 showed that parental CREDs and religious leaders’ CRUDs were positively and negatively associated with religious belief among religious individuals, respectively. Study 3 found that religious leaders’ CRUDs increase negative attitudes toward religion and decrease identification with the institution of religion, but did not immediately affect individualistic spirituality. Findings highlight the role of clergy in religious deidentification, with implications for the role of cultural evolution theory in Muslim-majority contexts.

Was the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic associated with young adults’ religiosity and time-related cultural values? If so, were there also associated changes in peoples’ spatio-temporal preferences as predicted by the Temporal Focus Hypothesis? We used a behavioral task and three questionnaires across young participants from eight cultures: Bosniaks, Chinese, Croats, Moroccans, Serbs, Spaniards, Turks, and U.S. Americans. In Study 1, we compared two matched samples, one collected before the pandemic (N = 497) and the other collected during the pandemic (N = 497). In Study 2, we used the entire sample of young participants collected only during the pandemic (N = 893). The results from Study 1 showed that young adults collected during the pandemic (compared to before the pandemic) were less religious (Hypothesis 1), more future-focused in their temporal values (Hypothesis 2), and represented the future in front of them to a greater extent (Hypothesis 3). In Study 2, we observed that the more concerned the participants were by the pandemic, the lower their religiosity (Hypothesis 4), the greater their future focus (Hypothesis 5), and the greater their tendency to represent the future in front (Hypothesis 6). This pattern of results held across cultural groups with varying religiosity levels. Our findings show that during the pandemic, young people’s religiosity seemed to decline, and their focus on the future increased. This suggests the possible role of age and generation in coping strategies.

Despite its early focus on religious development and faith maturation, the psychology of religion and spirituality field underutilizes longitudinal designs; work is needed to reduce barriers to the longitudinal study of the processes by which faith matures. As a first step, the present study examines the invariance structure of the Faith Maturity Scale across three time points to assess the reliability and structure of the scale over time. The confirmatory factor analytic method was used to examine data from 572 college students. Configural, metric, scalar, and residual/strict models were tested. Findings support the full strict residual longitudinal invariance model, providing evidence of longitudinal invariance in factor structure, item loadings, intercepts, and residuals. These findings suggest that longitudinal changes in vertical and horizontal faith maturity reflect changes in the constructs themselves rather than artifacts of measurement, providing evidence for continued use of the Faith Maturity Scale longitudinally.

This article examines the construct of spiritual ties to place, a particular form of place attachment entailing a bond to the sacred within a place. Specifically, we explore what types of places people feel spiritual ties to, as well as the psychological characteristics of this unique person–place bond. An online sample of North American participants (N = 823) self-identifying with the Abrahamic traditions (281 Christians, 272 Muslims, 270 Jews) provided descriptions of a place they have a spiritual connection to. After conducting content analysis across underlying subgroups, we employed latent class analysis to identify the most common ways in which spiritual ties to place manifest. A four-class solution revealed distinct profiles: spiritual ties to (a) worship places, (b) natural places, (c) private places, and (d) unfrequented places. Although equivalent with regard to general place attachment, classes differed in terms of their spiritual ties, highlighting the unique explanatory power of this psychological construct. This study reveals how spiritual ties to place vary, in terms of both the kinds of locations people bond to and the unique psychological experiences that emerge from those bonds.

The present study uses a person-centered approach to examine how profiles of commitment, awareness, and openness to existential beliefs moderate the association between religious/spiritual (r/s) struggles and outcomes of well-being across two studies. Measures of existential humility, r/s struggles, and well-being were completed in a sample of undergraduates (Study 1, N = 303) and community members (Study 2, N = 1,027). Latent profile analyses (LPA) were conducted to identify profiles of existential humility (commitment, awareness, openness). The strength of associations between r/s struggles and well-being (i.e., Study 1: depression, anxiety, flourishing, meaning in life, life satisfaction; Study 2: death anxiety, meaning in life) were compared across profiles. Three profiles in Study 1 (i.e., Diffident Seekers, Arrogant Seekers, Moderates) and four profiles in Study 2 (i.e., Humble Seekers, Arrogant Seekers, Arrogant Dwellers, Moderates) significantly differed across outcomes of well-being in the face of r/s struggles. Results suggested that profiles higher in commitment and lower in existential humility (i.e., Arrogant Dwellers, Arrogant Seekers) showed vulnerabilities to depression and lack of meaning, whereas profiles higher in humility (i.e., Diffident Seekers, Humble Seekers) demonstrated vulnerabilities to anxiety. Profiles characterized by moderate commitment and existential humility (i.e., Moderates) showed relative advantages on outcomes of well-being. The findings suggest that the profiles of existential humility moderate the associations between r/s struggles and outcomes of well-being. This study demonstrates the value of taking a person-centered approach to assessing existential humility and its associations with well-being when individuals experience existential pain.

Religious and spiritual doubt (R/S doubt) is common in young adulthood. Despite the pervasiveness of this experience, R/S doubt is associated with negative mental health and physical outcomes. To date, much of the research examining R/S doubt focuses on documenting these negative outcomes. Yet, it is unclear how R/S doubts are distinguished emotionally from other types of doubts (e.g., doubts about important life decisions). The present study sought to characterize the objective (i.e., memory details) and subjective (i.e., phenomenology) emotional memory markers associated with R/S doubts compared to non-R/S doubts. Young adult participants (18–35 years old) who self-identified as Christian retrieved and elaborated on an autobiographical memory for a past R/S doubt or a control doubt (e.g., doubt about an important life decision). Sentiment analysis was used to quantify the emotional memory details and emotional intensity (i.e., polarity). Participants also completed a series of subjective memory questions and the Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale. Memories in the R/S condition had significantly more negative emotional intensity than memories in the control condition. Participants in the R/S condition also indicated more negative subjective valence when recalling their memories than the control condition. Finally, individual differences in emotional intensity and subjective valence in the R/S condition were negatively associated with performance on the Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale. These findings highlight that both objective and subjective metrics of emotional memory are more negative in R/S doubts compared to non-R/S doubts.

Divine forgiveness, or forgiveness by a Supreme Being or higher power, is central to several religions and likely impacts human behavior. Therefore, the present study examines its association with indicators of psychological distress (depressive symptoms) and well-being (flourishing), as well as how belief in an intervening God may impact these associations. A sample of emerging adults (N = 438) attending a U.S. university completed an online survey that assessed divine forgiveness, belief in a God who intervenes in the world, religiosity, depressive symptoms, and flourishing. Partial correlations and moderation analyses examined several hypotheses on the correlates of divine forgiveness. Divine forgiveness was inversely related to depressive symptoms and positively related to flourishing. However, these associations were moderated by belief in a God or Supreme Being who actively intervenes in the world. As belief in such divine intervention increased, the relation between the experience of divine forgiveness and depressive symptoms and flourishing became stronger. All results were found to be independent of levels of religiosity. The findings are discussed in regard to several additional factors that might point to a more nuanced association between the perception of divine forgiveness and psychological functioning. The implications of the results for future research are also outlined.

What role does cognitive dissonance play in religious deidentification processes? People’s perceived experiences of God may not always align with their beliefs or expectations of God—something known as religious cognitive dissonance. Following previous work in religious deidentification, we examined whether religious dones would demonstrate religious residue in their beliefs about and experiences of God. In addition, we explored whether any such religious cognitive dissonance was associated with negative attitudes toward God. Sampling 4,697 participants from the United States, Hong Kong, and the Netherlands, we found evidence for religious residue in religious cognition in both Study 1 (N = 3,071) and Study 2 (N = 1,626), respectively. We also found an association between explicit negative attitudes and religious cognitive dissonance among religious dones in both Studies 1 and 2, suggesting that the dissonance experienced when God fails to live up to one’s expectations partially accounts for religious dones’ negative attitudes toward God. This work provides additional evidence for the religious residue hypothesis and highlights how cognitive dissonance negatively affects religious dones, and how it may play a role in religious deidentification.

This research aims to provide scholars with a picture of lay conceptualizations of the psychological experience of divine forgiveness that will serve as a foundation for theoretical development and more precise psychometric measurement. Using a prototype methodology, we first asked participants representative of the three major monotheistic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) to freely report on their concept of divine forgiveness (Study 1, N = 300). In Study 2 (n = 173), an independent representative sample then rated the centrality of all attributes identified in Study 1. A third representative sample rated the accuracy of two scenarios describing the experience of divine forgiveness, written using either central or peripheral attributes (Study 3, n = 143). Finally, Study 4 (n = 331) replicated Study 3 with the addition of a third, mixed attribute, scenario. A total of 143 attributes of divine forgiveness were identified. Attributes such as “Comes from God/higher power,” “Moving on/letting go,” and “Repentance” were most frequently reported. Attributes of “Honesty,” “Compassion,” and “Acknowledge wrongdoing or shortcomings” were considered most central. Participants could reliably differentiate between central, mixed, and peripheral descriptions of divine forgiveness. Our findings indicate that divine forgiveness is prototypically organized and provide a rich resource for theoretical development. Applicability of these findings to the psychometric measurement of divine forgiveness and important avenues for future research in this burgeoning field are discussed.

In times of crisis, such as during a pandemic, people turn to their beliefs to cope. Belief systems can offer contemplative practices. One exercise that may be helpful for individuals as they cope is the examen, a contemplative practice rooted in the Catholic Jesuit tradition. Haarman (2020) adapted the Ignatian examen for the context of COVID-19. The present study explored how practicing the examen for life during COVID-19 impacted participants’ experience of self-transcendent positive emotions, autonomous interpersonal styles, interpersonal relationship goals, and anxiety and depression symptoms. It also examined the moderating impact of trust in God on mental health symptoms and negative affect. In this study, 115 participants were randomly assigned to practice the examen for life during COVID-19, and all participants completed a pretest questionnaire, daily surveys, and a posttest questionnaire. Though results did not reveal support for a priori hypotheses, exploratory analyses revealed that the examen for life during COVID-19 may have been particularly helpful for those most negatively impacted by the pandemic. The results highlight the utility of studying a variety of contemplative practices, as different practices will likely be helpful for different practitioners.

This study assesses whether transcendent accountability amplifies the positive associations between welcoming accountability to others and the performance virtues of patience and courage. Using a sample of 1,884 college students, path analyses tested whether perceiving transcendent accountability moderated the association between welcoming accountability to others in goal pursuit and the virtues of patience and courage, which were assessed both in goal pursuit and at the trait level. Welcoming accountability was associated with goal- and trait-level patience and courage, but transcendent accountability was only associated with courage in goal pursuit. Transcendent accountability amplified the associations between welcoming accountability and patience and courage in pursuing goals and trait patience in daily hassles. In addition to expanding the nomological network of welcoming accountability to include performance virtues, the amplifying effect of transcendent accountability highlights the importance of embracing accountability to both humans and a transcendent other for cultivating virtuous goal pursuit.

Training in how to ethically and effectively approach spirituality and religion (R/S) diversity in mental health (MH) care is lacking. Strong evidence exists for the relevance of R/S to MH, and most clinicians agree that such training is needed. This study investigated the barriers and facilitators to including R/S in MH professional training across clinical and counseling psychology, social work, marriage and family therapy, and other MH professional training programs. Administrators, faculty, and students; training directors; professional association and accreditation representatives; practitioners; and clients with MH care experience were asked for their views. Eight focus groups were conducted, and Rapid Qualitative Analysis (Hamilton, 2013) of transcripts informed questions for 29 additional interviews. Interview responses were thematically analyzed to add onto themes from the focus groups. Participants saw R/S as relevant to MH care, inseparable from the client, and a coping resource. Most agreed that R/S training needs improvement and identified a need for well-defined competencies, appropriate places in curriculum to address them, and thoughtful presentation of the material. Participants suggested faculty training to teach R/S and evidence-based resources that avoid promoting specific belief systems. Participants noted that oppression and privilege based on religion and ways that R/S can detract from MH should be acknowledged. Our findings build upon recommendations from other studies by being cross-discipline and delving into the barriers, facilitators, and strategies for including R/S training in MH programs, from the perspectives of stakeholders with the authority to make decisions regarding inclusion of such training.

In the present registered report, we test whether belief in science as a source of meaning helps restore existential comfort following reminders of death in nonreligious individuals. We predicted that spirituality of science—the capacity to experience high levels of transcendent spiritual meaning through science—may serve as proximal defense against existential anxiety and increase following reminders of death, especially for individuals who believe in science as a way of knowing. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a high-powered experiment (N = 697) with secular participants from the United Kingdom and the United States and manipulated existential anxiety using a prompt asking them to write down emotions evoked by thoughts about either their own death (existential anxiety condition) or dental pain (control condition). Contrary to the hypotheses, analyses indicated no significant differences in spirituality of science between conditions (and also when controlling for belief in science). Bayes factor analysis further indicated moderate evidence against such differences. Notably, post hoc exploratory analyses of participants’ written responses revealed that only 35% of participants reported explicit feelings of existential anxiety, while 29% explicitly reported not being afraid of death. This suggests that the existential threat may not have been fully experienced by all secular participants in this study. Overall, we found no evidence to suggest that spirituality of science protects secular individuals against existential anxiety. We discuss implications for theory and future research.

Scholarly interest in patience has grown in recent years and, along with it, an interest in interventions designed to cultivate it, especially among young adults. To improve interventions, it is important to know how lay people understand patience. Given that religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, have varied notions of the construct, the present study explored, through semistructured interviews (N = 60), religious and nonreligious young adults’ understandings of patience. Findings suggest that the young adults in our sample defined patience as waiting, accepting circumstances, practicing self-control, persevering, and respecting others, and although participants reportedly valued the construct, they recognized it was not useful in all circumstances. They reported that practicing patience was challenging, but it felt good when they managed to do it. Finally, religious beliefs shaped the way religious youth understood the construct. Findings have important implications for research on patience and for practitioners looking to support the development of patience, especially among young adults from Christian, Muslim, and Buddhist backgrounds. These implications are addressed more fully below.

There exists a long history of claimed qualitative differences between experiences of Western and Eastern religious art. Our study sought to examine empirically and quantitatively whether those reports are veridical and, if so, to what extent. We explored psychological distance, empathy, and the feeling of personal communication that humans experience when viewing Western paintings and Eastern icons. We recruited three groups of self-identifying participants: Western Christians, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and nonbelievers. Participants viewed 15 digital images of artworks depicting events of the Gospels. Using self-report measures, we assessed temporal and spatial distances between participants and the depicted Gospel events, the feeling of personal communication, and cognitive and emotional empathy toward the depicted figures. Across all participants, temporal and spatial distances were greater for Eastern icons compared with Western paintings. Cognitive and emotional empathy were higher for paintings compared with icons. No differences in the feeling of personal communication were found between icons and paintings. Among nonbelievers, temporal and spatial distances related to both icons and paintings were greater compared with Western and Eastern Christians. On the other hand, the feeling of personal communication was greater among Western and Eastern Christians, as well as emotional and cognitive empathy, compared with nonbelievers. Aesthetic properties of icons and paintings, as well as individual differences in religious backgrounds, influence the way viewers experience psychological distance, empathy, and the feeling of personal communication when observing religious art.